| Respond: Week 1, Topic 1 – Transactional Model of Communication (Req’d.)
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To begin this conversation, please first explore these definitions of communication on pages 295-299 in theEncyclopedia of Communication Theory. Then, review this history and description of communication models on pages 175-179 in the Encyclopedia of Communication Theory, taking particular note of its information about the transactional model:
This model holds that we send and receive messages simultaneously. Acommunicator encodes (e.g., puts thoughts into words and gestures), then transmits the message via a channel (e.g., speaking, email, text message) to another communicator(s) who then decodes the message (e.g., takes the words, gestures, etc. and applies meaning to them). The message may encounter noise (e.g., any physical, psychological, or physiological distraction or interference), which could prevent it from being received or fully understood as the sender intended:
Just think, do you really stop “communicating” when someone is talking to you? No, you are making nonverbal responses, like head shakes, or arm folds, or “hmm-hmm” comments to give the speaker continuous feedback. You also are processing the communication that you are receiving by trying to understand it, placing it in its proper context, and imagining what will be the best responses.
Let’s unpack this. Imagine that you and another person are each holding a ball and simultaneously throwing the balls back and forth to each other. This is how the transactional model of communication works. You can even imagine the channels of communication not being as strong by having the two people toss the balls with their eyes closed (a telephone conversation?). Or the channels can be weaker if you have a wall up between you, or you both play and catch with only one hand. The BEST communication likely occurs in a quiet room where two people are really paying attention to each other.
As for noise, that could be anyone else walking along who throws another ball at you while you are playing with another person. Or, noise can be the wall over which you must throw your message. Another form of noise could be throwing balls that are unfamiliar to you (a new language or jargon used only at a particular job).
Types of Noise
Imagine if your instructor brought a bunch of whiffle balls into class to show the various aspects of the transactional model. Pretty soon, the pairs begin to make rules about when they will throw the balls.
When the ball-throwing groups are made larger, the groups quickly figure out that there better be a fairly strictly governed order by which the group members throw their balls, so that “messages” aren’t lost under chairs! Indeed, as soon as communication gets into larger groups, the group needs to decide upon rules of communication so that everyone is heard and that messages aren’t lost. You no doubt have found the same need for stricter “rules” when groups try to communicate together – more formalized turn-taking and the assignment of a group leader so that the communication happens relatively easily.
Please select and address at least one of the following activities in a carefully crafted response to this topic. But before you tackle these activities, please make sure you have read the materials at all of the links in this discussion question.
Activity #1
How does the transactional model differ from the earlier Shannon and Weaver:
and Schramm models of communication?
What are their strengths and weaknesses vs. the transactional model? What made the linear approach to modeling communication so attractive initially and why is the transactional model more appealing now?
Then, please relate what you learned to a typical staff meeting at your place of work (or recent job or volunteer group meeting).
Participants
Coding/Decoding (who is creating messages/who is receiving them?)
Feedback (who gives/receives it?)
Noise (note different kinds)
Channel(s) How are messages being sent
Context – Where people are sending and receiving messages.
Activity #2
Alternatively, review this classic Abbott and Costello clip, “Who’s On First,” then try to identify and explain what went wrong by using the transactional model of communication:
Please post your initial response to this prompt by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Thursday; respond to the initial posts of at least two other students by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Sunday.
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February 4 at 10:35 PM
Respond: Week 1, Topic 2 – Seven Traditions of Communication Research & Theory (Req’d.)
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Communication is both a very old field and a very contemporary one. In many ancient cultures — Greek, Roman, Indian, Chinese, for example — scholars wrote out strategies for effective communication. Some of these ancient scholars included Aristotle (Greek), Cicero and Quintilian (Roman); all were interested in understanding how a person (a male) could make his way through the world using language in the most influential, graceful, and authoritative ways possible. Much of what was considered “education” of the young in ancient Rome was teaching about communicating effectively, a tradition that faded in time. Today, few of us have the tools in our communications tool bag for understanding what makes effective messages and how people can be persuaded or dissuaded from certain beliefs or actions.
The earlier communication scholars organized different kinds of strategies for persuading people in different situations. If we read Aristotle’s Rhetoric, we see a comprehensive book on human psychology — how people can be moved, persuaded, reasoned with. Cicero’s work, such as On the Orator, covered how to be persuasive in ancient Rome’s courts of law. Quintillian tried to instruct young people on how to think by following certain forms of writing and by observing the world in his twelve books, called “The Institutio Oratoria.” The study of “rhetoric” changed in the next two thousand years, especially in Europe, but almost nearly faded from the educational system by the early 20th century when it was seen as old-fashioned or unimportant. However, modern rhetorical scholars have revived many of its principles and are trying to include them in academia and public schools.
At the end of the 19th century, sociologists also began to look more closely at the way social groups operate. Anthropologists, a few decades later, began to examine the influence of culture upon communication. Political scientists and social scientists of the 1930s wondered at the power of radio and movies to send out propaganda messages to control entire nations. In turn, economists, psychologists, philosophers, and educational experts of all stripes have looked to the role of “communication” within their fields.
Communication as a separate field of study is relatively new, propelled in part by the advancement of electronic means of communicating as the twentieth century proceeded through the film, radio, television, satellite, cable, and digital ages. Even so, the “fields” of communication are vast and varied, and have come to be divided into seven traditions that you can learn about in this presentation.
These fields of study address the various ways humans communicate with each other across time, space, and contexts. The study of these contexts might be best understood as focusing on specific communication processes and effects. The seven contexts of communication study examine particular combinations of people in specific communication situations. The Encyclopedia of Communication Theory tells us these can be sorted into theories of:
intrapersonal communication, which address our understanding and use of symbols;
interpersonal communication, which address the communication between dyads (two people);
group communication, which deal with small groups;
organizational communication, which address communication in organizations;
public/rhetorical communication, which examine f2f communication to a large group of listeners;
mass/media communication, which encompass messages produced for mass audiences; and
intercultural communication, which look at communication among people of different cultures.
Contemporary researchers also study gender, which focuses on communication issues of women and between the sexes, health, and computer-mediated communication contexts.
Communication context boundaries are fluid. We can find interpersonal and group communication in organizations. Gender communication occurs whenever people of different sexes communicate. And we can have mass communications to individuals, group, and organizations. As a result, their are many communication theories of which these are the major ones.
Activity:
Before you tackle this exercise, please make sure you have read the materials at all of the links in this discussion question.
Consider the role communication plays in your personal and professional lives. Which of the seven traditions, which also are known as the rhetorical, semiotic, phenomenistic, cybernetic,sociopsychological or sociocultural, and critical traditions– intrigues you the most?
Consider, too, the contexts of communication study — For example, which would you like to know more about? How do you plan to use your greater understanding of communication in the future? What is most “useful” to you as a person, employee, parent, spouse, team-mate, citizen, etc.?
Please respond with a cogent, coherent reply and support your comments with documented research. Don’t forget to comment on your classmates’ posts!
To further understand the seven traditions of communication research, you may want to review pages 132-149 in this classic 1999 article by Robert Craig, “Communication Theory as a Field.”
Please post your initial response to this prompt by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Thursday; respond to the initial posts of at least two other students by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Sunday.
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February 4 at 10:38 PM
Respond: Week 1, Topic 3 – Five Facets of Communication (Req’d.)
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Most scholars agree there are five facets or elements to communication that come together to define communication as roughly asocial process in which individuals employ symbols to establish and interpret meaning in their environment. Let’s see if we can enhance our understanding of a couple of those terms!
Activity
Before you tackle this discussion, please make sure you have reviewed the definitions of communication on pages 295-299 in the Encyclopedia of Communication Theory, these divisions or contexts of communication, and the other assigned readings in this week’s learning resources. Then response to at least one of these questions:
1. Communication is “social” in that it involves people and interactions, whether face-to-face or mediated. Can you think of a few more categories for the social patterns of human communication?
2. Communication uses symbols, arbitrary labels or representations of phenomena that are sometimes concrete in that they represent an actual object, and sometimes abstract because they can represent ideas and thoughts. Explain a time when you did not understand a “symbol” — what was it, and how did you realize you did not understand what was being communicated?
3. Communication is a process that is an ongoing, dynamic, and unending occurrence. It also is complex and continually changing. Much can happen in the process; if communication were not dynamic, then compromise and resolution were not possible. Communication is irretrievable, irreversible, and unrepeatable; as such, every communication episode is unique. Describe a type of communication interaction that exemplifies how people can end up in a very different place once a discussion gets underway.
4. Meaning is what people extract from what researchers might call a communication episode. What are some examples of situations in which communication may succeed even without shared meaning?
5. The term “environment” is used by communication scholars to describe the situation or context in which communications occurs, and can include time, place, method (that is, whether the communication is mediated by technology), historical period, relationship, and the participants’ ages, genders, education, and cultural backgrounds. All of these elements influence our perspectives and perceptions. For Bob Dylan, for example, the context was the Civil Rights movement in the 1960s. What are some major contemporary media messages for which the context has changed in recent years?
As you can see, communication is both vast and highly particular; ambiguous and exact. Complete your response by telling us what you see as some of the challenges in studying “communication.”
Please post your initial response to this prompt by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Thursday; respond to the initial posts of at least two other students by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Sunday.
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February 4 at 9:50 PM
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Week 2 Discussions 2/5-2/11
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Respond: Week 2, Topic 1 – Theory and Research Methodology (Req’d.)
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In general, think of theory as a way to approach knowledge, test it, and find out more about it. Please review this definition of theory in the SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods and this basic summary of the key elements of theory-building. This document also may be helpful. Theories can be approached in a variety of ways, depending upon what is being studied. Your objective here is to try and understand its broad strokes.
Activity:
Before you tackle this exercise, please make sure you have read the materials at all of the links in this discussion question. Then, please address the following questions in a cogent, coherent response:
1. What is a grand theory? Since it may seek to explain all communication behavior in a manner that is universally true, what might it resemble?
2. What are the components of a theory? What must a researcher do to use the components effectively? Why do you suppose it is important for both nominal and real concepts to be “observable”? How could we observe “family bonding,” for example (a nominal concept).
3. Which of these activities might a theory investigate (pick one and please make sure to explain why you think question might be one a researcher in the communication field would or could explore):
a) How to persuade teens not to smoke;
b) Which TV programs for children are the most educational?;
c) Do political talk radio hosts differ in the subjects they cover based upon their political party?
d) Are cable news shows’ coverage of the government’s stimulus package positive or negative toward the package?
e) Do men or women talk more?
f) How do people change their voices when they are with different social or ethnic groups?
Can you think of other questions a theory might investigate? Please feel free to add them to your response. Remember, however, that whatever we study has to be either observable or countable, preferably both!
Please post your initial response to this prompt by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Thursday; respond to the initial posts of at least one other student by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Sunday.
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February 12 at 2:16 PM
Respond: Week 2, Topic 2 – The Role of Values In Research (Req’d.)
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It is important for scholars to understand the role that values may / should play in their research. But what do I mean by “values”?
Please make sure you have reviewed this definition of “theory” in the SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods and this basic summary of the key elements of theory-building.
Please read pages 17-18 and pages 315-316 in the SAGE Dictionary of Social Research Methods.
Please also read pages 911-914 n the SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods on the controversy surrounding the notion of value-free research.
Finally, please read about axiology and values in inquiry in theEncyclopedia of Communication Theory to find out if value-free research is possible.
Values are ideas that people share about what is good or bad, desirable or undesirable, acceptable or unacceptable, etc. Values typically are associated with religious beliefs, upbringing, culture, education, economic background, etc., and they’re reflected in all of our behaviors. The role values play in theory and research is called “axiology.” There are three views on the role that is appropriate for values in inquiry:
Empirical: Avoid allowing values to influence the research process as much as possible
Interpretive: Recognize that values unavoidably influence the entire process
Critical: Values should be closely intertwined with scholarly work
Research that has been produced by an impartial and dispassionate researcher is said to be value-free. If a researcher can conduct a study shorn of his or her own particular beliefs, values, prejudices and opinions, this impartiality presumably will be reflected in the end product of the research.
The ethical researcher is supposed to know and understand how his values might affect his approach to truth. However, empirical andinterpretive or critical researchers differ in their answers to the question, What is truth? As a result, the proposition that a scholar’s work can truly be “value-free” is hotly contested in the social sciences.
Positivist researchers believe that our personal values should not affect the process of research and for this reason we must not to be a part of process; for example, these researchers reject survey-based research methods. But interpretativist researchers say our values are an inevitable part of research at all stages. Just choosing one topic to research over another suggests that we think one of the topics is more important.
Activity
Before you tackle this exercise, please make sure you have read the materials at all of the links in this discussion question.
Then, thinking like a research scholar, please select and defend one the following propositions in a response to this discussion prompt, then comment on your classmates’ responses by the end of the week in posts that elaborate on your position:
Position #1: Research should always be value free.
Position #2: Research will have values, but should be free of values in areas concerned with verification of results.
Position #3: Research will inevitably be influenced by values. Therefore, we must be aware of how these values will influence our research.
Position #4: Values are a desirable part of the research process.
Position #5: Values negatively affect the research process.
Let’s make this into a robust debate!
Please post your initial response to this prompt by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Thursday; respond to the initial posts of at least two other students by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Sunday.
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February 11 at 11:30 PM
Respond: Week 2, Topic 3 – Approaches to “Truth” (Req’d.)
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The way we understand our world depends upon the kinds of questions we ask:
Ontology is the study of the nature of reality;
Epistemology is the study of how we know what we know; and
Axiology is the study of that which we think is worth knowing.
How we approach that understanding depends upon the approach we take to testing our ideas. There are three general approaches:
Postpositivist or empirical;
Hermeneutic or interpretive; and
Critical.
Before you tackle this exercise, please make sure you have read the materials at all of the links in this discussion question.
Activity
We come to know the world beyond our senses through abstraction — language. So, how do empiricists and interpretive/critical scholars differ in their answers to the question, What is truth? Which perspective do you find more satisfying?
Please post your initial response to this prompt by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Thursday; respond to the initial posts of at least one other student by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Sunday.
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February 12 at 2:19 PM
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Week 3 Discussions 2/12-2/18
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Respond: Week 3, Topic 1 – Symbolic Interaction Theory (Req’d.)
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Let’s spend some time considering Symbolic Interaction Theory. One idea that may seem either obvious or obscure has to do with the creation of “meaning.” Who creates “meaning?” Humans do, but sometimes we believe that our creations of meaning have an intrinsic value. To begin to understand this, see the seven assumptions of this theory.
Think about the word “cake.” It is closely related to our ideas of a dessert with layers of baked product mixed with layers of a butter/sugar mixture (icing). When you read the word “cake” here, did it conjure up an image of a sheet cake for you, or a double or triple layer cake? Maybe you saw in your mind’s eye a chocolate cake, a carrot cake, or a coconut-covered cake. Perhaps you saw candles? Now, consider this clip from “My Big Fat Greek Wedding”:
In Social Interaction Theory, our notions of “cake” come from our personal experiences and what we think we imagine other people (society) think about when the word “cake” is mentioned. Indeed, if I say “gloop” to mean “cake,” no one will know what I am talking about! So, we create a shared meaning for the word “cake” that is both a mixture in my mind of my personal experiences of cake and what the social meaning of “cake” is — as I understand it from communicating with others.
This lesson from a TEDx presentation sums up how this shared understanding of symbols creates meaning for a community of people:
You can see the complexity of that shared meaning in language from this RadioLab video called “Words” by NPR:
We want to keep in mind that the symbolic sound and written squiggles we’ve assigned to “cake” are also completely arbitrary — over the years, we English-speaking humans have a generally-agreed-upon sense of the meaning of that sound and those written squiggles! In French, they’ve decided that the word cake should be written as “gateau” and should be pronounced “gah-tow.” However, our friends in Spain assure us that the sound “gah-tow” means “cat” (gato). The word “cake” means nothing to them.
By now, you are beginning to understand how arbitrary meaning is! Just to add to the confusion, think of the word “caked” as in The horse’s legs were caked with mud. How did we English-speaking humans come up with that secondary meaning of the word “cake”? Why does one mean “dessert” and one means “coated” or “covered with?” Which meaning do you think came first?
Consider the three assumptions on how the “Self” is constructed through a process of interactions with others. Indeed, much of what we think about ourselves as individuals comes from how people treat us and reflect back to us what kind of person they think we are.
Activity
Before you tackle this exercise, please make sure you have read the materials at all of the links in this discussion question.
Then, please take a look at this short clip from the movie “You’ve Got Mail:”
.
Please select and respond to at least one of the following questions:
The two characters, Joe and Kathleen, are friends on the Internet, but only Joe realizes as the scene opens that his online friend is his opponent in the “real” world. As you watch this clip, look for physical symbols that the two main characters respond to — what different meanings do they give to a rose and the book Pride and Prejudice?
What does Kathleen imagine Joe thinks about her? Why does she not like Joe?
What is Kathleen’s self-concept? How does it change in this interaction with Joe?
What is Joe’s self-concept? How does it change in this interaction with Kathleen? How do you know, or think you know, that his self-concept has changed?
Finally, what do you find most useful about Social Interactionism? Does it support the notion that people can shape their own lives through how they communicate to themselves and to others?
Please write a cogent, coherent response; make sure to support your remarks with evidence. Do not hesitate to add to our knowledge by sharing the links to any authoritative resources on this topic that you may discover on the Internet. Then, swap observations with your classmates!
Please post your initial response to this prompt by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Thursday; respond to the initial posts of at least two other students by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Sunday.
Have fun with this!
(Response required.)
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February 20 at 12:07 PM
Respond: Week 3, Topic 2 – Expectancy Violations Theory (Req’d.)
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As with many communication theories, Expectancy Violations Theory is premised on an idea that may prompt a reader to think “Well, I knew that already!” However, there are some twists in the theory you may find interesting. Here is its author, Judee Burgoon, explaining the theory:
The heart of this theory is its notion of expectancies — the cognitions and behaviors anticipated and prescribed in a conversation with another person. Expectancies include individuals’ nonverbal and verbal behavior.
Make a point of learning the definitions for the terms proxemics andhaptics, which have to do with the nonverbal behaviors (use of space and use of touch) that we’re most comfortable with. For instance, there are different kinds of spatial distances that North Americans expect for different kinds of communication:
Intimate distance ranges from actual touching to 18 inches
Personal distance: This is your personal “bubble” and it ranges from 18 inches to 4 feet. You most likely conduct most of your interpersonal interactions at this distance, i.e., talking to family and friends.
Social distance is more impersonal – there’s less visual detail in the interaction. It ranges from 4 feet to 12 feet.
The so-called public distance is one in which defensive action becomes more possible. It ranges from 12 feet to more than 25 feet.
Please watch this “Seinfeld” clip:
Once you have reviewed the video, respond to this discussion prompt by explaining the scene in terms of our theory, then slect and respond to at least one of these activities. Please do not tackle either of these exercises until you have read the materials at all of the links in this discussion prompt.
Activity 1:
Why is it possible for some people to breach another person’s expectancy norms and yet come across in a positive light? Think about the physical space violations. What term is given to people who can break these norms?
Activity 2:
Reflect upon a time when you felt as if someone had violated your space in a way that made you feel uncomfortable, at least at first. Did that person repeat this behavior more than once? Did you give that person verbal or nonverbal signals that the “closeness” violated your expectancies? In other words, how did you use communication to handle this “violation”?
Synthesize your ideas into a cogent, coherent response; make sure to support your comments with researched evidence. Do not hesitate to add to our knowledge by sharing the links to any authoritative resources on this topic that you may discover on the Internet. Then, swap observations with your classmates!
Please post your initial response to this prompt by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Thursday; respond to the initial posts of at least two other students by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Sunday.
(Response required.)
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February 18 at 11:05 PM
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Week 4 Discussions 2/19-2/25
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Respond: Week 4, Topic 1 – Relational Dialectics Theory (Req’d.)
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Please make sure you have read Relational Dialectics in theEncyclopedia of Communication Theory before you react to this discussion prompt. RDT says relational life is characterized by ongoing tensions between contradictory impulses. Well, of course; everybody knows that. It is grounded in four main assumptions:
Relationships are not linear;
Relational life is characterized by change.
Contradiction is the fundamental fact of relational life.
Communication is central to organizing and negotiating relational contradictions.
Make sure you know what the following terms mean:
Contradictions – in relational dialectics, the concept is that the extreme contrary has the characteristics of its opposite
Totality – in relational dialectics, the totality comes when the opposites unite. Thus the relationship is balanced with contradictions and only then it reaches totality
Process – relational dialectics can be comprehended through various social processes. These processes simultaneously continue within a relationship in a recurring manner
Praxis – the relationship progresses with experience and both people interact and communicate effectively to realize their needs. Praxis is a concept of practicability in making decisions being in a relationship despite of opposing wants and needs
The most common dialectics in a relationship are:
Openness and closeness (openness and protection)
In a relationship, both partners expect openness in their communication as to be dependable and also to maintain a healthy relationship. But on the contrary, the individual desires privacy.
Certainty and uncertainty (novelty and predictability)
Certainty is one factor that bonds the relationship. It is the promise that one keeps and makes both the parties comfortable. But on the contrary, being so predictable makes the relationship dreary thus an element of surprise or ambiguity spur up the relationship.
Connectedness and separateness (autonomy and connection)
A relationship to continue, people has to be bonded physically and mentally. But on the contrary too much of connectedness can blur the individuality of the person.
We use these tools to manage relational dialectics:
Alternation – prioritizing the problems alternatively
Denial – being one sided while confronting a problem while ignoring the other.
Segmentation – dealing with the problem one-sidedly. Unlike denial, the problem is being faced in a different circumstance
Disorientation – avoiding the problem by terminating the relationship
Balance – keeping a balance between the situation while solving a problem
Reaffirmation – accepting the problem to maintain the relationship
Integration – both the parties are made satisfied by developing methods to solve problems
Now, listen to one of the theory’s authors explain these principles:
Please select and address at least one of the questions for one of the video clips in one of the following two activities in a carefully crafted response to this topic.
Activity #1
Take a look at some of these scenes from the television show “Friends:”
“Princess Consuela”
“New House”
“French”
“Rachel Feeds Emma”
“Phoebe’s Song”
“Everyone Finds Out”
Select one of the videos above and respond to at least one of the following questions. Please do not tackle this exercise until you have reviewed the related materials at the links in this discussion prompt.
What are the dialectical struggles you see? In other words, the “humor” is based on dialectical tension. Use the above terms from the theory to explain what is going on in the relationships you see. For example, use the ideas from Social Exchange or Social Penetration Theory to explain why the dialectic of “getting closer/maintaining autonomy” didn’t “work” for Rachel in “Rachel Feeds Emma.”
Compare the heuristic qualities of Relational Dialectics with those of Social Exchange Theory. Do you think both theories have equal explanatory and predictive strengths?
Give an example from your own life where you feel or felt a dialectic pull between two opposites. For example, you might appreciate your spouse for his or her careful use of money, but also want him or her occasionally to join you in a “splurge” on an exciting trip.
Please post your initial response to this prompt by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Thursday; respond to the initial posts of at least two other students by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Sunday.
Activity #2
Alternatively, watch the following video and consider thesequestions.
Another aspect of interpersonal relationships worthy of our consideration concerns barriers to or reasons why we might not feel particularly inclined to engage with others in the ways we have learned about here. In other words, why to we resist or avoid efforts to connect more deeply with one other? And what might we be missing out on when we don’t take advantage of the opportunity to connect?
After you review the clip, respond to at least one of these questions. Please do not tackle this exercise until you have reviewed the related materials at the links in this discussion prompt.
1. What might be the advantages of pursuing relationships with others with whom we may not share interests, beliefs, values, etc.?
2. What kinds of barriers or impediments do you think we experience within and between the stages of interpersonal relationship formation? Is there ever a benefit to not advancing through the stages of relational intimacy?
3. Why do you think this, or other examples that you can illustrate here, matter in our discussion of communication?
4. Is there ever a benefit to not advancing through the stages of relational intimacy?
You may find this resource helpful to your response: “What King Learned from Gandhi” from The Los Angeles Review of Books.
Please post your initial response to this prompt by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Thursday; respond to the initial posts of at least two other students by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Sunday.
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February 25 at 10:56 PM
Respond: Week 4, Topic 2 – Social Penetration Theory (Req’d.)
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Learning to communicate well and authentically is linked to a general idea that people could make the world a better place. Social Penetration Theory (SPT) came out of that cultural period, a time when opening up and talking candidly was highly valued as an important relational strategy, often likened to peeling an onion:
SPT is all about that process of bonding. Two major themes immediately come to mind: 1) the importance of “I” statements when we are talking with someone about our feelings; and 2) the utility to paraphrasing or restating what a person has said to show that we understand him or her. SPT identifies four stages of self-disclosure to this process of relationship development:
Orientation stage. In this stage, people start with short, simple, and usually inconsequential talk.
Exploratory-affective stage. Individuals now start to reveal themselves, expressing personal attitudes about public topics such as government and education. This is the stage of casual friendship, and many relationships do not go beyond this stage.
Affective stage. At this stage, people start to talk about private and personal matters. Criticism and arguments may also arise. There may be intimate touching and hugging at this stage.
Stable stage. The relationship now reaches a level where personal things are shared, and one can predict the emotional reactions of the other person.
Depenetration. When the relationship starts to break down and costs exceed benefits, there is a withdrawal of disclosure that leads to termination of the relationship.
It’s probably hard for many of you to remember a time when people did not expose their problems and feelings in an open way to anyone other than their closest of friends. Nowadays, people chat on and on about themselves in public through TV reality and talk shows, Twitter, texting, Facebook, blogs, and so on. Consider, for example, how men and women differ in bonding over talking about a kiss in this scene from the television series “Friends:”
We have certainly moved far beyond the social restraints for conversation.
Although we can see SPT was a reaction to a time when social conventions played a stronger role in what people talked about, the question remains painfully clear: How do we get close to people?
Activity
Before you tackle this exercise, please make sure you have read the materials at all of the links in this discussion question.
The film “When Harry Met Sally” is all about peeling the onion; it explores a variety of interpersonal intimacy issues. The following scene comes from the beginning of the movie as the two main characters are embarking on their road trip to New York:
Harry and Sally have just met and are “feeling each other out” to see if they want to continue their relationship once they get to the city. You may want to watch the rest of the scene before responding to the questions in this activity:
This discussion question has to do with the meaning of their time together in the car after they have just met. Because of the length of their road trip, Harry and Sally eventually penetrate some important areas of intimacy.
Post a response to at least one set of these questions:
1. Why do they NOT continue their relationship at this point in the movie? What strikes you about the level of self-awareness of Harry and Sally? Do you think this movie promotes the SPT idea that self-disclosure is what people must do to grow closer in their relationships?
2. Compare the “Friends” clip to the one from “When Harry Met Sally.” Do men share the same strategies for getting to know other men as friends in the same way women make friends with other women? Why or why not? When does a man know that he has a true friend with another man?
3. Looking back at your own life experiences, what do you think about the fourth assumption of SPT: Self-disclosure is at the core of relationship development? What other ways could people get closer to each other, if not through self-disclosure?
Please post your initial response to this prompt by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Thursday; respond to the initial posts of at least two other students by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Sunday.
(Response required.)
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February 27 at 12:26 AM
Respond: Week 4, Topic 3 – Uncertainty Reduction Theory (Req’d.)
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It’s nice to have a communication theory that addresses our worries and concerns about interacting with people! Are you aware of the “work” that you do to address the anxieties you might have about a given communication situation? To start to understand, please read this entry on the Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT) in the Encyclopedia of Communication Theory, then listen to this explanation from its author, Charles Berger:
We tend to have two kinds of concerns:
Cognitive uncertainty – the degree of uncertainty associated with the beliefs and attitudes we hold. Are we sure we have interpreted others’ behaviors accurately? Do we care about that interpretation if it is negative or positive?
Behavioral uncertainty – the extent to which behavior is predictable in a given situation, and whether we know what the right behaviors are in a given situation.
This theory says when people first meet, they are primarily concerned with increasing predictability in an effort to make sense out of their communication experience.
Prediction – the ability to forecast one’s own and others’ behavioral choices
Explanation – the ability to interpret the meaning of behaviorial choices
Here’s a personal example will help explain the two kinds of uncertainty: One of the “joys” of academia is attending professional conferences. Some conferences have a stated purpose and allow like-minded people to meet, work together, and achieve goals. Other conferences are more “diffuse” in their purpose, so that the general goal is for people to jockey for social position and to ally themselves with influential people. I feel quite cognitively uncertain about how to interpret accurately what people are doing, and I wonder if such interpretations will be valid or useful to me. I’m not sure what behaviors I can use to avoid being seen as competitive for status as other people. On the other hand, I want to behave so that people see me as smart and competent. Generally, such meetings are an anxious trial for me.
The theory is based upon seven assumptions that are used as building blocks for the rest of the theory, one of which is that people’s behaviors can be predicted in a “lawlike” fashion. These predictions are not infallible rules but are considered highly probable behaviors; therefore, the rules are called axioms:
Given the high level of uncertainty present at the onset of the entry phase, as the amount of verbal communication between strangers increases, the level of uncertainty for each interactant in the relationship will decrease. As uncertainty is further reduced, the amount of verbal communication will increase.
As nonverbal affiliative expressiveness increases, uncertainty levels will decrease in an initial interaction situation. In addition, decreases in uncertainty level will cause increases in nonverbal affiliative expressiveness.
High levels of uncertainty cause increases in information seeking behavior. As uncertainty levels decline, information seeking behavior decreases.
High levels of uncertainty in a relationship cause decreases in the intimacy level of communication content. Low levels of uncertainty produce high levels of intimacy.
High levels of uncertainty produce high rates of reciprocity. Low levels of uncertainty produce low reciprocity rates.
Similarities between persons reduce uncertainty, while dissimilarities produce increases in uncertainty.
Increases in uncertainty level produce decreases in liking; decreases in uncertainty level produce increases in liking.
The researchers West and Turner (2014) offer another way to state those assumptions:
People experience uncertainty in interpersonal settings.
Uncertainty is an aversive state, generating cognitive stress.
When strangers meet, their primary concern is to reduce their uncertainty or to increase predictability.
Interpersonal communication is a developmental process that occurs through stages.
Interpersonal communication is the primary means of uncertainty reduction.
The quantity and nature of information that people share change through time.
It is possible to predict people’s behavior in a lawlike fashion. (p. 15)
The theory suggests interpersonal communication is a process involving three broad developmental stages:
Entry phase – the beginning stage of an interaction between strangers, typically guided by implicit and explicit rules and norms, such as shaking hands.
Personal phase – when people begin to communicate more spontaneously and personally, revealing more idiosyncratic information.
Exit phase – the stage in a relationship when people decide whether to continue or leave. (West and Turner, p. 151)
These axioms can be used to generate 21 theorems about the relationship between two concepts:
Amount of verbal communication and nonverbal affiliative expressiveness are positively related.
Amount of communication and intimacy level of communication are positively related.
Amount of communication and information seeking behavior are inversely related.
Amount of communication and reciprocity rate are inversely related.
Amount of communication and liking are positively related.
Amount of communication and similarity are positively related.
Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and intimacy level of communication content are positively related.
Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and information seeking are inversely related.
Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and reciprocity rate are inversely related.
Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and liking are positively related.
Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and similarity are positively related.
Intimacy level of communication content and information seeking are inversely related.
Intimacy level of communication content and reciprocity rate are inversely related.
Intimacy level of communication content and liking are positively related.
Intimacy level of communication content and similarity are positively related.
Information seeking and reciprocity rate are positively related.
Information seeking and liking are negatively related.
Information seeking and similarity are negatively related.
Reciprocity rate and liking are negatively related.
Reciprocity rate and similarity are negatively related.
Similarity and liking are positively related.
If you have a mathematical or logical bent to your thinking, you will find URT fascinating. At about this point, however, other people begin to feel quite lost. Do not feel you have to understand all the various theorems and axioms for this class. What you should take away from this theory is the notion of a “rules based” theory and its many strengths, particularly to generate useful findings and to generate new research avenues. This ability to suggest new and useful avenues of research is called “heurism.” Here’s an applied example of the theory with further explanation on how it works.
Select and respond to one of the following activities. Please make sure you have read the materials at all of the links in this discussion question before your tackle this exercise.
Activity #1:
To help you understand these complicated axioms and theorems, take a look at this clip from the movie “Hitch” on how to meet women:
Now, using the helpful material here, see if you can connect any of his advice to URT.
Activity #2:
Alternatively, watch this clip from the television show “The Big Bang Theory” when main characters Sheldon and Leonard meet for the first time:
With help from the material here, see if you can identify and explain URT in the scene.
Activity #3:
Alternatively, from what you have just learned, how might you have used or might use this theory, its axioms, principles and theorems, to better manage your feelings of uncertainty when you meet new people? Please provide examples to support your explanations.
Please post your initial response to this prompt by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Thursday; respond to the initial posts of at least two other students by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Sunday.
(Response required.)
Reference
West, R. and Turner, L. H. (2014). Introducing communication theory: Analysis and application. 4th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
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February 28 at 12:42 AM
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Respond: Week 5, Topic 1 – Groupthink Theory (Req’d.)
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Please read the explanation of Irving Janis’ Groupthink Theory on pages 460-462 in the Encyclopedia of Communication Theoryand this optional succinct summary. Then watch this video to understand a key element of this theory: our need to conform.
Groupthink occurs when groups are highly cohesive and when they are under considerable pressure to make a quality decision. Under extreme pressure, groups may ignore alternatives to maintain unanimity. This can lead to carelessness and irrational thinking. Decisions shaped by groupthink have low probability of achieving success.
To put groupthink into context, read Group Communication Theories on pages 456-461 in the Encyclopedia of Communication Theory, then listen as researcher Randy Hirokawa’s explains key group communication principles:
According to Janis, there are eight symptoms of groupthink:
Illusion of invulnerability – Creates excessive optimism that encourages taking extreme risks.
Collective rationalization – Members discount warnings and do not reconsider their assumptions.
Belief in inherent morality – Members believe in the rightness of their cause and therefore ignore the ethical or moral consequences of their decisions.
Stereotyped views of out-groups – Negative views of “enemy” make effective responses to conflict seem unnecessary.
Direct pressure on dissenters – Members are under pressure not to express arguments against any of the group’s views.
Self-censorship – Doubts and deviations from the perceived group consensus are not expressed.
Illusion of unanimity – The majority view and judgments are assumed to be unanimous.
Self-appointed “mind guards” – Members protect the group and the leader from information that is problematic or contradictory to the group’s cohesiveness, view, and/or decisions.
One example of groupthink that had devastating consequences was the decision to launch the Space Shuttle Challenger in January 1986. The people at a company called Morton Thiokol had developed the seals to the rockets that lifted the Shuttle into space. If the seals couldn’t close, the rockets wouldn’t function properly.
The following short-clip presents a re-enactment of a Morton Thiokol meeting when groupthink led the company to tell NASA to go ahead with the launch in weather many Morton Thiokol engineers felt was too cold for the seals to work properly:
The clip illustrates some of the steps that lead to groupthink and disastrous decision-making.
Most of us have to work in groups and we need to know why they function well or not. To find out how well you understand groupthink, you might try your hand at this self-assessment. Then find out how well you did.
Activity #1:
Please relate an example of groupthink you have experienced, analyzing the situation based upon the symptoms of groupthink described here. Did you feel constrained or supported by leadership to express your views? What happened? Be sure to use the terms for the various symptoms of groupthink in your story. What did you learn from this experience?Chapter 13 in A Primer on Communication Studies can show you how managing your small group interaction is very different from your one-on-one interactions.
Activity #2:
If you have not experienced groupthink, then please tell us: How do power relations influence how important decisions get made? When you become a boss (if you are not already), how will you use communication tactics wisely to avoid groupthink in your team?
Please write a carefully constructed response. Make sure to support your observations with evidence. Then, discuss your classmates’ observations with them!
Please post your initial response to this prompt by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Thursday; respond to the initial posts of at least two other students by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on Sunday.
(Response required.)<
All Assignments:
Please complete this Communication Self-Assessmentby Sunday, Week 1. You can submit it using the “Upload” button below or directly to your assignment folder through “Assignments” in the blue navbar at the top of your class room screen. (Worth 5% of your final grade.)
For this assignment, you willreflect on how your participation in social and cultural activities has contributed to the formation of your identity. Its purpose is for you to demonstrate a practical application of communication concepts to your life. You are to explore how your educational, co-curricular, family, and work experiences have contributed to the way you communicate, using theories from the first week’s readings. Write an essay of at least 700 words. Use these topics to get you started:
? Your racial and/or ethnic identity
? Your gender identity
? Your social class
? Your goals to achieve success in life (however you define “success”)
? What it means to be healthy
? What it means to be positively involved in community activities
? What it means to communicate in a mature, competent fashion
You might use to help you understand your instructor’s minimum expectations for this assignment.
General assessment rubric:
- Did the essay address how your participation in social and cultural activities contributed to the formation of your identity? (45 points)
- Did the essay identify any of the communication theories discussed so far? (30 points)
- Was the essay at least 500-700 words in length? (15 points)
- Were there any errors in APA format or documentation, or spelling, punctuation, grammar, syntax or style? (10 points)
| Complete: Assignment 2 – Research Study Analysis ~ Due Sunday, Week 2 |
| Instructions |
|
| Complete this Research Study Analysis by 11:59 p.m. ET Sunday, Week 2. You can submit it using the “Upload” button below or directly to your assignment folder through “Assignments” in the blue navbar at the top of your classroom screen. (Worth 10% of your final grade.)
For this assignment, you will analyze a research study that was published in the Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication.This study is typical of how communication research findings are presented in scholarly journals. It follows a set pattern that all research studies in the empirical tradition follow, so you will look more at its “structure” than its content.
Go to “The Impact of Language Variety and Expertise on Perceptions of Online Political Discussions.”
Write a 1,050-word essayin which you describe the study based on the major headings used in the article. Make sure your essay includes answers to these questions:
* What is a literature review? What does it do?
* What terms are defined?
* How many hypotheses are there?
* Where does the Research Methodology appear in the study?
* How many cases or subjects were there in the study?
* How many hypotheses were supported by the data?
* Where are the “conclusions” given in the research paper?
(You will likely be baffled by the statistical analyses used on the data collected by the researchers unless you have had a few courses in statistics. You can skip this section of the study.)
Finally, analyze what you learned about the study. Based on what you have read in our course content, was this study well designed? Why or why not? Make sure to support all your claims with directly quoted, summarized and paraphrased material from your course resources that you have properly cited with APA-style in-text citations and end-of-text references.
Research Study Analysis Rubric
| Element |
Yes / No |
| List the study’s elements |
|
| What is a literature review? What does it do? Explain. |
|
| List the terms that are defined |
|
| Where does the Research Methodology appear in the study? How many cases or subjects were there in the study? |
|
| How many hypotheses are there? They are usually written H1, H2, H3, etc. |
|
| Where are the “conclusions” given in the research paper? |
|
| Based on what you have read in the course content, was this study well designed? Why or why not? |
|
| ~1,050-word essay |
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| College-level grammar |
|
| APA-style documentation |
|
| Total: 10 points ea. |
Grade: / 100%
|
|
Assignment 3 – Communication Theory Annotated Bibliography ~ Due Sunday, Week 3
Instructions
For this assignment, you will select and investigate a communication theory and create an annotated bibliography that conforms to American Psychological Association format and style requirements.
1. Choose a communication theory from the following:
- Any group or organizational comm theory EXCEPT Groupthink
- Cultural Studies, Cultivation Analysis, Spiral of Silence, and Mass Media theories but NOT Uses and Gratifications
- Any of the Culture and Diversity theories
- Any of the Relationship Development theories
2. Click on Resources > Library in the blue navigation bar at the top of our classroom screen or go to the Library at http://www..edu/library/library.html . You will be taken to the OneSearch page in our library.
3. Click on Research Guides > Course Research Guides on that page to find this class’s communication theory resources. Review information about the theory you’d like to pursue. The Encyclopedia of Communication Theorywould be a good source for this.
4. Then go back to the OneSearch page and use the Research Databases or the Advanced Search function to explore information related to your major or your planned career in the list.
5. Once you are done exploring, search for peer-reviewed journal articles about thecommunication theory and career you’re interested in. Your job is to explore research on communication theories or skills that has been conducted about your chosen career field. For example, “nursing” and “standpoint theory” or “nursing” and “empathetic listening.”
6. Report the subject area.
7. Report the database(s) you used for your search.
8. Report the keywords you used in your searches.
9. Write an introductory paragraph (~250-300 words) describing the reasons you chose that theory or researcher in the context of the following question:
How can an understanding communication theory supplement your skills and the insights you will need to succeed in your future work?
10. Select three articles from the databases in your field of study or career interest that support your thesis in response to the question posed in Step 9.
11. Write an annotated bibliography for the three articles that best support your thesis. If you are unfamiliar with an annotated bibliography, click on Resources > Effective Writing Center in the classroom navigation bar to learn about them from our writing center, or go to the Purdue OWL. You need to write a complete APA citation for each article. Then write a summary of at least 150 words for each article that includes an explanation of how the article supports your thesis. Make sure each summary or “annotation” includes a specific quote that illuminates what you learned from the article.
12. Please be sure to write carefully and well, using good grammar and APA-style in-text citations for quotes, summaries, and paraphrases.
A sample annotated bibliography for this assignment is attached. Yours is due in the assignments area of the classroom by 11:59 p.m. ET Sunday, Week 3. (Worth 15% of your grade.)You can submit it through the link below or directly to your assignment folder through the Assignments link in the blue navbar above.
Annotated Bibliography Rubric
| CATEGORY |
A |
B |
C |
D |
F |
| Quality / Currency of Sources |
Sources reflect contemporary theoretical thinking. |
Sources reflect contemporary theoretical thinking. |
Only some sources reflect contemporary theoretical thinking. |
Sources may not reflect contemporary theoretical thinking. |
No sources reflect contemporary theoretical thinking. |
| Quality / Relevancy of Sources |
All sources cited can be considered relevant. |
Most sources cited can be considered relevant. |
Only some sources can be considered relevant. |
Few sources cited can be considered relevant. |
Little or no relevant sources cited. |
| Quality / Reliability of Sources
|
All sources cited can be considered reliable and/or trustworthy, i.e. bibliography exceeds or meets minimum requirements for peer-reviewed sources. |
Most sources cited can be considered reliable and/or trustworthy, i.e. bibliography meets minimum requirements for peer-reviewed sources. |
Only some sources can be considered reliable and/or trustworthy i.e. bibliography comes close to meeting minimum requirements for peer-reviewed sources. |
Few sources cited can be considered reliable and/or trustworthy, i.e. bibliography falls well short of minimum requirements for peer-reviewed sources. |
Little or no reliable and/or trustworthy sources cited, i.e. bibliography does not meet minimum requirements for peer-reviewed sources. |
| Quantity of Sources
|
Document cites the number of sources outlined in the assignment. |
Document cites the number of sources outlined in the assignment. |
Document cites the number of sources outlined in the assignment. |
Document is one source under the number of appropriate sources required by the assignment. |
Document does not contain appropriate sources to meet the number required by the assignment. |
| Writing Fluency of Annotations |
All annotations are thoughtful, complete, and well written. |
Most annotations are thoughtful, complete, and well written. |
Some annotations are well written but some are lacking in completeness, thought, and /or writing quality. |
Most annotations are lacking in completeness, thought, and/or writing quality. |
All annotations are lacking in completeness, thought, and/or writing quality. |
APA and
Documentation |
Citations are formatted correctly in the document. |
There are a few formatting errors in the document’s citations. |
There are some formatting errors in the document’s citations. |
There are many and/or frequent formatting errors in the document’s citations. |
There is little or no adherence to APA format in the document. |
| Overriding criterion: Originality and authenticity.If the essay is identified as not being original, and/or not done by the student, the instructor has the right to grade the paper as an F. |
| Checkpoints: |
Yes / No |
| Report the subject area of your search (2 points) |
|
| Report the database(s) used for your search (2 points) |
|
| Report the keywords you used in your searches (2 points) |
|
| Use three scholarly, peer-reviewed journal articles that reflect your thesis. (2 points ea. = 6 points) |
|
| Write an introduction (250-300 words) to your assignment that articulates the research question or hypothesis about comm theory that you developed in response to the assignment prompt. Explain how the three articles that you chose relate to your research question or hypothesis. (30 points) |
|
| Write three properly formatted APA-style bibliographic listings for the articles. (6 points ea. = 18 points). |
|
| Explain how each article supports your thesis (~150-200 words for each entry). Reference specific information in each article through summary, paraphrase, and/or at least one direct quote relevant to your thesis, which you support with a properly formatted, APA-style, in-text citation and bibliographic references. (10 points ea. = 30 points) |
|
| Use college-level grammar and mechanics. (5 points) |
|
| Edit/proofread work carefully to conform to APA manuscript rules. (5 points) |
|
| Submit completed work by deadline. (-10% for each day or portion of a day late, up to three days late) |
|
|
Complete: Assignment 5 – Communication Theory Presentation ~ Due Sunday, Week 7 (3/18) |
If your online or hybrid class has been assigned group presentations,please submit a copy of your contribution to the group’s final presentation HERE by 11:59 p.m. ET Sunday, Week 7,unless otherwise directed by your instructor. If your class has been assigned to complete individual presentations, please post yours here and in the designated discussion area under Content so that they can be reviewed by your classmates. If your class is a hybrid,please submit a copy of your individual presentation or a copy of your contribution to a group assignment HERE, when assigned to do so by your instructor,typically at the end of Week 7 or on the day that you are to make the presentation in class in Weeks 7 or 8. Check with your instructor for exact details.(Worth 10% of your final grade.)
