lease find attached the PDF documents of articles for the Critical appraisal Summative assignment. You can select ANY ONE (1) of the articles and critically appraise it by using chosen appraisal tool

lease find attached the PDF documents of articles for the Critical appraisal Summative assignment. You can select ANY ONE (1) of the articles and critically appraise it by using chosen appraisal tool
HARVARD-MAHSA STYLE OF REFERENCING (Citing & Referencing Guide Book) 2014 Edition Faculty of Allied Health Sciences Introduction to referencing What is referencing? Referencing is a system used in the academic community to indicate where ideas, theories, quotes, facts and any other evidence and information used to undertake an assignment, can be found. Why do I need to reference my work? Acknowledge other peoples’ ideas. Referencing your work correctly ensures that you give appropriate credit to the sources and authors that you have used to complete your assignment. To avoid plagiarism (i.e. taking other peoples’ thoughts, ideas or writings and using them as though they are your own). Plagiarism is a form of academic theft. Show evidence of the breadth and depth of your reading. Referencing the sources that you have used for your assignment demonstrates that you have undertaken wide-ranging research in order to create your work. Referencing your work enables the reader to consult for themselves the same materials that you used. Allow the reader of your work to locate the cited references easily, and so evaluate your interpretation of those ideas. What do I need to reference? All the information that you have used in your assignment will need to be acknowledged. It is essential to make a note of all the details of the sources that you use for your assignment as you go along. How to do referencing? There are two parts to the Harvard (author-date) system of referencing: The author and the date are referred to in the text or main body of your writing (called in-text referencing or in-text citation). All of the resources referred to in the body of the writing are included in the reference list (bibliography) at the end of the assignment. All information is included in this list: author, date, title of publication, publisher and place of publication. The Reference list needs to be presented in alphabetical order. How to do In-text references (In-text citations)? There are two ways of referencing in-text citation, they are Author-prominent This way gives prominence to the author by using the author’s surname (family name) as part of your sentence with the date and the page number in brackets. Example: Neville (2010) argues that……. Information-prominent The other way of referencing gives prominence to the information, with all the required referencing details given in brackets after the citation. Example: “Quotation” (Neville, 2010, p.76) Note: Required guidelines have been given in the examples on the following pages. When to include a page number in in-text citation? You do not need to use a page number if you are summarizing the general themes of a document in your own words. Include the page number when quoting the author’s exact words. Note: When paraphrasing, providing a page number is optional. It is recommended you provide a page number when it would help your reader find the exact source of your paraphrase (e.g. references to a specific sentence, paragraph, chapter, table or chart). When to use Italics? The title of the source of information is italicized. BOOK REFERENCING Book (1 author) Citation method (example): Author-prominent citation: Neville (2010) argues that… Information-prominent citation: “Quotation” (Neville, 2010, p.76) Referencing method: FAMILY/SURNAME, Initials. (Publication year in brackets) Book title – italicized. Series title and volume if applicable. Edition – if not the first. Place of publication: publisher. Referencing method (example): NEVILLE, C. (2010) The Complete Guide to Referencing and Avoiding Plagiarism. 2nd Ed. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Book (2 to 3 author) Citation method (example): Author-prominent citation: Bradbury, Boyle and Morse (2002) have stated that……. As noted by Bradbury, Boyle and Morse (2002)……… Information-prominent citation: “Quotation” (Bradbury, Boyle and Morse, 2002, p.51) Referencing method: FAMILY/SURNAME, Initials., FAMILY/SURNAME, Initials. and FAMILY/SURNAME, Initials. (Publication year in brackets) Book title – italicized. Series title and volume if applicable. Edition – if not the first. Place of publication: Publisher. Referencing method (example): BRADBURY, I., BOYLE, J. and MORSE, A. (2002) Scientific Principles for Physical Geographers. Harlow: Prentice Hall. Book (4 or more authors) Citation method (example): Author-prominent citation: Campbell et al. (2008)…. Information-prominent citation: “Quotation” (Campbell et al., p.76) Referencing method: FAMILY/SURNAME, Initials. et al. (Publication year in brackets) Book title – italicised. Series title and volume if applicable. Edition – if not the first. Place of publication: Publisher. Referencing method (example): CAMPBELL, N. A. et al. (2008) Biology. 8th Ed. London: Pearson. Book (Editor/s) Citation method (example): Information-prominent citation: “Quotation” (Fontana-Giusti, 2008) Referencing method: FAMILY/SURNAME, Initials. (ed.) or (eds.) – in brackets for editor(s). (Publication year in brackets) Book title – italicised. Series title and volume if applicable. Edition – if not the first. Place of publication: Publisher. Referencing method (example): FONTANA-GIUSTI, G. (ed.) (2008) Designing Cities for People: Social, Environmental and Psychological Sustainability. London: Earthscan. Chapter in an edited book Citation method (example): Author-prominent citation: As noted by Marshall (1975)…. Information-prominent citation: “Quotation” (Marshall, 1975, p.76) Referencing method: FAMILY/SURNAME, Initials of the author writing the chapter. (Publication year in brackets) Title of chapter. In: FAMILY/SURNAME, Initials. of author or editor of book (ed.) or (eds.). Book title – italicised. Series title and volume if applicable. Edition – if not the first. Place of publication: Publisher. Referencing method (example): MARSHALL, W. A. (1975) The Child as a Mirror of his Brain’s Development. In: SANTS, J. & BUTCHER, H. J. (eds.). Development Psychology. Aylesbury, Bucks: Hazell Watson & Viney Ltd. Corporate authors (groups, committees, companies) Citation method (example): Author-prominent citation: The Great Britain, Department of Energy (1977) concluded that… Information-prominent citation: “Quotation” (Great Britain, Department of Energy, 1977, p.12) Referencing method: Includes publications by Government departments, Committees: COUNTRY. NAME OF ISSUING BODY. (Year of publication in brackets) Title of publication – in italics. Place of publication: Publisher. (Report Number – if applicable in brackets). Referencing method (example): THE GREAT BRITAIN. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY. (1977) Tidal Power Barrages in the Severn Trent Estuary: Recent Evidence on their Feasibility. London: H. M.S. O. (Energy Papers 23). Book (no author) Citation method (example): Information-prominent citation: “Quotation” (No author, 2010, p.76) Referencing method: Book title – italicized (Publication year in brackets). Edition – if not the first. Place of publication: publisher. Referencing method (example): The Complete Guide to Referencing and Avoiding Plagiarism (2010). 2nd Ed. Maidenhead: Open University Press. e-BOOK REFERENCING E-Book Citation method (example): Author-prominent citation: Sadler (2003) argues that…….. Information-prominent citation: “Quotation” (Sadler, 2003, p.18) Referencing method: FAMILY/SURNAME, Initials. (Publication year in brackets) Book title – italicised. [Online] Series title and volume if applicable. Edition – if not the first. Place of publication: Publisher. Available from – URL. [Accessed: date]. Referencing method (example): SADLER, P. (2003) Strategic Management. [Online] Sterling: VA Kogan Page. Available from: http://www.netlibrary.com/reader/. [Accessed: 6th May 2012]. Electronic / online JOURNAL ARTICLE REFERENCING Journal article (electronic/online) Citation method (example): Author-prominent citation: Wilson (1995) argues that….. Information-prominent citation: “Quotation” (Wilson, 1995, p.66) Referencing method: If you are referencing a journal from an online database service which is password accessible only i.e. EBSCO you can shorten the URL to the home page of the database service. If you are accessing a journal article directly and for free from the internet, you will need the entire URL. Author(s) of article’s FAMILY/SURNAME, Initials. (Publication year in brackets) Title of article. Title of journal – italicised. [Online in square brackets] Name of Database the article is from if appropriate. Volume number (Part number/month in brackets). p. followed by the page numbers of the article. Available from: URL. [Accessed: followed by the date viewed in square brackets]. Referencing method (example): WILSON, J. (1995) Enter the Cyberpunk librarian: future directions in cyberspace. Library Review. [Online] Emerald Database 44 (8). p.63-72. Available from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com. [Accessed: 30th January 2012]. FREGONEZI, G., RESQUETI, V. and ROUS, R. (2004) Pursed Lips Breathing. Arch Bronconeumol. [Online] NORA 30 (6). p. 278-282. Available at http://ac.els-cdn.com/S1579212906700994/1-s2.0-S1579212906700994-main.pdf?_tid=dacf13d0-dd1d-11e3-8e45-00000aab0f6c&acdnat=1400260784_2ce9631931da8e2ad141a1b5a1b71020 (Accessed: 16th May 2014). Printed JOURNAL ARTICLE REFERENCING Journal article (printed) Citation method (example): Author-prominent citation: Trefts and Blacksee (2000) argue that…. Information-prominent citation: “Quotation” (Trefts and Blacksee, 2000, p.376) Referencing method: Author(s) of article’s FAMILY/SURNAME, Initials. (Publication year in brackets) Title of article. Title of journal – italicised. Volume number (Part number/month in brackets). p. followed by the page numbers of the article. Referencing method (example): TREFTS, K. and BLACKSEE, S. (2000) Did you hear the one about Boolean Operators? Incorporating comedy into the library induction. Reference Services Review. 28 (4). p.369-378. WEBSITE REFERENCING Website Citation method (example): Author-prominent citation: ….…as reported by the BBC (2008) Information-prominent citation: “Quotation” (BBC, 2008) Referencing method: Author of website FAMILY/SURNAME, Initials or WEBSITE name if no author is available. (Year – in brackets) Title of website in italics. Any numbers if necessary or available if website is part of a series. [Online in square brackets] Available from: URL. [Accessed: followed by date in square brackets]. Referencing method (example): BBC NEWS. (2008) Factory gloom worst since 1980. [Online] Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/7681569.st m. [Accessed: 19th June 2012]. NEWSPAPER (Online) REFERENCING Newspaper (online) Citation method (example): Author-prominent citation: Randerson (2008) argues that….. Information-prominent citation: “Quotation” (Randerson, 2008, p.14) Referencing method: Author(s) of article’s FAMILY/SURNAME, Initials. (Publication year in brackets) Title of article. Title of Newspaper – italicised. [Online in square brackets] Name of Database article is from if appropriate. Day and month of the article. Page number of the article if applicable. Available from: URL. [Accessed: followed by the date viewed in square brackets]. Referencing method (example): RANDERSON, J. (2008) Researchers find fish that can count up to four. The Guardian. [Online] 26th February. p.14. Available from: http://theguardian.co.uk. [Accessed: 22nd May 2012]. FILMS (DVD, VHS, BLU-RAY DISC) REFERENCING Films [DVD], [VHS], [Blu-ray Disc] Citation method (example): If you refer to a film in the body of your work, the title will need to be placed in italics: Author-prominent citation: …this is highlighted by Harry’s character in the film Requiem for a Dream (2000). Information-prominent citation: …in the animation movement (Chicken Run, 2000) Referencing method: Title – in italics. (Year of distribution in brackets) Material type. Directed by – name of director(s). [Format of source in square brackets] Place of distribution: Distribution company. Referencing method (example): Chicken Run. (2000) Animated Film. Directed by Peter Lord and Nick Park. [VHS] UK: Pathe Distribution. Requiem for a Dream. (2000) Film. Directed by Darren Aronofsky. [DVD] UK: Momentum Pictures. HARD COPY UNIVERSITY-PROVIDED STUDY MATERIALS Study Guide (author known) Citation method (example): Author-prominent citation: Similarly, Fisher (2009, p. 1–2) notes that ‘…’. Information-prominent citation: … to promote mental wellness, prevent illness … (Fisher, 2009). Referencing method (example): FISHER, J 2009, HLTH12029 Mental health promotion: study guide, CQUniversity, Rockhampton. Study Guide (author unknown) Citation method (example): Author-prominent citation: A recent report (CQUniversity 2000) has suggested that … Information-prominent citation: Findings from a 1999 study indicate that ‘…’ (CQUniversity 2009, p. 5). Referencing method (example): CQUNIVERSITY 2009, HLTH11028 Community needs assessment: study guide, CQUniversity, Rockhampton. Tutorial/workshop handout (unpublished) Citation method (example): Information-prominent citation: The importance of aerobic exercise … (The respiratory system 2010). Aerobic exercise is valuable because of its ‘…’ (The respiratory system 2010, p. 1). Referencing method (example): THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 2010, tutorial handout distributed in the course, HHM72160 Human anatomy, CQUniversity, Gladstone on 2 March. Note: Do not use italics or quotation marks in class handouts as they are unpublished sources. Lecture notes (unpublished) Citation method (example): Author-prominent citation: Thompson (2011) found that the first teaching day may result in mixed emotions for many first year teachers. Information-prominent citation: It has been found that beginner teachers, on their first day in the class room, will ‘…’ (Thompson, 2011, p. 1). Referencing method (example): THOMPSON, R 2011, The first day experience, lecture notes distributed in the course, EDED48314 Professional practice III, CQUniversity, Bundaberg, 21 April. Note: Do not use italics or quotation marks in class handouts as they are unpublished sources. Lecture material—non-print (e.g. whiteboard notes) Citation method (example): Author-prominent citation: In a lecture, SCI52613 Introductory science, presented at Central Queensland University, Mackay, on 17 April 2011, Dr Watson suggested that ‘…’. Referencing method (example): Note: This should not be included in the reference list. Treat it the same as personal communication and indicate ‘who’ (author) and ‘when’ (date) in the sentence in the body of your assignment as in-text citation. SECONDARY REFERENCING Secondary Referencing Citation method (example): Information-prominent citation: A description on musculoskeletal manipulation in 1993 by Jeffrey Maitland (see Kisner, 2003, p.212) is very appropriate for this context because….. Referencing method: If you can’t read the original source, you can cite only what another author has written about it. In this case, you must give a secondary reference. Remember, you are relying on the author you are reading and want to give an accurate representation of the original work. Referencing method (example): In the reference list, you will have to give the full details of Carolyn Kisner but not Jeffrey Maitland because you have not read Jeffrey Maitland’s book and your readers can find reference to it in Carolyn Kisner. Follow the appropriate ‘Book referencing method’, which we have discussed earlier (depending upon number of authors wrote the book). References: The citation and referencing style has been adapted according to Harvard author-date format. Harvard examples in this guide are based on guidance in: BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTE (2010). BS ISO 690:2010. Information and documentation – Guidelines for bibliographic references and citations to information resources. Switzerland: ISO Copyright Office. The Abridged Guide to the Harvard Referencing Style (author-date) is based on: COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA (2002), Style manual: for authors, editors and printers, 6th edn, John Wiley & Sons Australia, Milton, Qld. NEVILLE, C. (2010) The Complete Guide to Referencing and Avoiding Plagiarism. 2nd Ed. Maidenhead: Open University Press. BS ISO 690:2010 (2010) Method of punctuation is consistent with BS ISO 690:2010 style. 26
lease find attached the PDF documents of articles for the Critical appraisal Summative assignment. You can select ANY ONE (1) of the articles and critically appraise it by using chosen appraisal tool
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Œ ð 1 W _ ^ ] 1 û Š • Š ¢ œ ’ Š ü 1 ˜ ˜ › 1 Ž ‘ ’ Œ • Ž œ 1 û ‘ ’ › , Š › ¢ 1 ’ œ ” œ 1 Š — 1 ˜ – ™ Ž — œ Š ’ ˜ — ü 1 Œ 1 û Š ™ 1 W ^ _ ü 1 1 Ž ™ ž ‹ • ’ Œ 1 ˜ ’ — Š ™ ˜ › Ž 1 ˜ ˜ › 1 Ž ‘ ’ Œ • Ž œ 1 û ‘ ’ › , Š › ¢ 1 ’ œ ” œ 1 Š — 1 ˜ – ™ Ž — œ Š ’ ˜ — ü 1 ž • Ž œ 1 W _ V 1 û Ž ™ ž ‹ • ’ Œ 1 ˜ 1 ’ — Š ™ ˜ › Ž ü 1 ˜ ˜ › 1 Ž ‘ ’ Œ • Ž œ — œ ž › Š — Œ Ž 1 û ‘ ’ › 1 Š › ¢ 1 ’ œ ” œ ü 1 Œ 1 û Š ™ 1 _ V ü 1 Ž Š › Š 1 › ž — Ž ’ 1 Š › ž œ œ Š • Š – 1 û ‘ Ž 1 › Ž Ž › Ž — Œ Ž 1 ˜ 1 • Ž ’ œ • Š ’ ˜ — 1 ž — Ž › 1 ‘ Ž 1 ‘ Ž Š ’ — Ÿ ˜ ’ Š — Œ Ž 1 ˜ 1 Ž › Š ’ — 1 Ž › – œ 1 Š — 1 ’ ‘ 1 ˜ 1 Ž Œ ˜ Ÿ Ž › ¢ ü 1 ’ œ 1 • ’ – ’ Ž 1 ˜ 1 Ž Œ ’ ˜ — 1 _ Z ð 1 _ [ 1 Š — 1 _ 1 ˜ 1 ‘ Ž 1 ˜ Š 1 › Š — œ ™ ˜ › 1 Œ 1 W _ ^ ] û Š • Š ¢ œ ’ Š ü 1 Ž Œ ’ ˜ — 1 ] ð 1 ^ 1 Š — 1 _ 1 ˜ 1 ‘ Ž 1 ˜ ˜ › 1 Ž ‘ ’ Œ • Ž œ 1 û ‘ ’ › , Š › ¢ 1 ’ œ ” œ 1 Š — 1 ˜ – ™ Ž — œ Š ’ ˜ — ü 1 Œ 1 û Š ™ 1 W ^ _ ü 1 Ž ™ ž ‹ • ’ Œ 1 ˜ ’ — Š ™ ˜ › Ž 1 Š — 1 Ž Œ ’ ˜ — 1 ] 1 ˜ 1 ‘ Ž 1 ˜ ˜ › 1 Ž ‘ ’ Œ • Ž œ 1 — œ ž › Š — Œ Ž 1 û ‘ ’ › 1 Š › ¢ 1 ’ œ ” œ ü 1 Œ 1 û Š ™ 1 _ V ü 1 Ž Š › Š 1 › ž — Ž ’ 1 Š › ž œ œ Š • Š – ï ‘ Ž 1 ˜ • • ˜   ’ — 1 œ Œ ‘ Ž ž • Ž û œ ü 1 Š Š Œ ‘ Ž 1 ‘ Ž › Ž ˜ 1 ˜ › – û œ ü 1 ™ Š › 1 ˜ 1 ‘ ’ œ 1 ™ ˜ • ’ Œ ¢ ï — œ ž › Ž œ 1 Ž • Ž ™ ‘ ˜ — Ž ñ 1 ‘ ž Š 1 Ž Œ ” 1 ž Š — ‘ ’ Ž 1 ¡ Ž Œ ž ’ Ÿ Ž 1 ’ Œ Ž › › ’ — Ž 1 ‹ ¢ 1 [ Z ] W 1 ˜ — 1 Y V & V W & X V X W , ^ _ Z Z ] Z W , Š Ž X ž ‹ “ Ž Œ 1 ˜ 1 ‘ Ž 1 ˜ • • ˜   ’ — 1 — ˜ › œ Ž – Ž — œ ð 1 Š › › Š — ’ Ž œ 1 Š — 1 • Š ž œ Ž œ 1 ™ › ’ — Ž 1 ’ — 1 ‘ Ž 1 ™ ˜ • ’ Œ ¢ 1 ˜ › 1 Š Š Œ ‘ Ž 1 ‘ Ž › Ž ˜ 1 ñ , 1 V V W 1 , 1 1 1 1 û , ü › ’ — Ž 1 ‹ ¢ 1 [ Z ] W 1 ˜ — 1 Y V & V W & X V X W , ^ _ Z Z ] Z W , Š Ž Y W ˜ › – 1 1 , 1 Ž › ’ ’ Œ Š Ž 1 ˜ 1 — œ ž › Š — Œ Ž 1 1 ð 1 W _ ^ ] 1 û ü 1 1 1 û 1 1 ü 1 ð 1 W _ [ _ 1 û ü 1 1 1 û 1 1 1 1 ü 1 1 û 1 W ^ _ ü 1 1 1 1 1 1 û 1 1 1 1 ü 1 1 W _ V 1 û 1 1 ü ï 1 1 1 û 1 1 ü 1 1 û 1 _ V ü ð 1 1 1 ï Ž › ’ ’ Œ Š Ž 1 ˜ ï , ^ _ Z Z ] Z W , W ï — Ž ¡ 1 Š › ” 1 Š — 1 Ž ’ œ › Š ’ ˜ — Ž ‘ ’ Œ • Ž 1 Ž ’ œ › Š ’ ˜ — 1 ˜ ï ñ X W V ^ Ž ‘ ’ Œ • Ž 1 Š ” Ž ñ ^ X 1 ) 1 Ž ‘ ’ Œ • Ž 1 ˜ Ž • ñ X W 1 ) 1 Ž ‘ ’ Œ • Ž 1 Ž œ Œ › ’ ™ ’ ˜ — ñ 1 X ï Š – Ž 1 ˜ 1 ˜ • ’ Œ ¢ 1 ˜ • Ž › ñ 1 1 1 1 Y ï Ž Œ ’ Ÿ Ž 1 Š Ž 1 ˜ 1 ‘ Ž 1 ˜ – – Ž — Œ Ž – Ž — 1 ˜ 1 — œ ž › Š — Œ Ž 1 ˜ › 1 ‘ Ž 1 ™ ž › ™ ˜ œ Ž 1 ˜ 1 ‘ Ž 1 Ž ž • Š ’ ˜ — œ ð 1 › ’ — Š — Œ Ž 1 ˜ › 1 — Š Œ – Ž — ñ X _ & V W & X V X W Z ï Š Ž 1 ˜ 1 ¡ ™ ’ › ¢ 1 ˜ 1 — œ ž › Š — Œ Ž ñ 1 X ^ & V W & X V X X [ ï Ž › œ ˜ — œ 1 ˜ › 1 • Š œ œ Ž œ 1 ˜ 1 Ž › œ ˜ — œ 1 Ž — ’ • Ž 1 ˜ 1 › ’ Ÿ Ž 1 û Š ü 1 ‘ Ž 1 ˜ • ’ Œ ¢ ‘ ˜ • Ž › ï 1 › ˜ Ÿ ’ Ž 1 ‘ Š 1 ‘ Ž 1 ™ Ž › œ ˜ — 1 › ’ Ÿ ’ — 1 ’ œ 1 ™ Ž › – ’ Ž 1 ’ — 1 Š Œ Œ ˜ › Š — Œ Ž 1   ’ ‘ 1 ‘ Ž 1 • ’ Œ Ž — œ ’ — 1 ˜ › 1 ˜ ‘ Ž › 1 • Š   œ 1 ˜ › 1 › Ž ž • Š ’ ˜ — œ ˜ 1 › ’ Ÿ Ž 1 ‘ Ž 1 ˜ ˜ › 1 Ž ‘ ’ Œ • Ž 1 ˜ › 1 ‘ Š œ 1 ‹ Ž Ž — 1 ™ Ž › – ’ Ž 1 Š — 1 ’ œ 1 — ˜ 1 ’ œ š ž Š • ’ ’ Ž 1 ‹ ¢ 1 ˜ › Ž › 1 ˜ 1 Š 1 ˜ ž › 1 ˜ 1 Š   1 ˜ › 1 ‹ ¢ › Ž Š œ ˜ — 1 ˜ 1 Š — ¢ 1 Ž — Š Œ – Ž — 1 ˜ › 1 › Ž ž • Š ’ ˜ — 1 ’ — 1 ‘ Š 1 ‹ Ž ‘ Š • 1 › ˜ – 1 › ’ Ÿ ’ — 1 ‘ Ž 1 ˜ ˜ › 1 Ž ‘ ’ Œ • Ž ï ï ’ – ’ Š ’ ˜ — œ 1 Š œ 1 ˜ 1 ž œ Ž œ Ž 1 ˜ › 1 œ ˜ Œ ’ Š • ð 1 ˜ – Ž œ ’ Œ 1 Š — 1 ™ • Ž Š œ ž › Ž 1 ™ ž › ™ ˜ œ Ž œ 1 Š — 1 ’ — 1 Œ ˜ — — Ž Œ ’ ˜ — 1   ’ ‘ 1 ‘ Ž 1 ˜ • ’ Œ ¢ ‘ ˜ • Ž › œ 1 ‹ ž œ ’ — Ž œ œ 1 ˜ › ™ › ˜ Ž œ œ ’ ˜ — ï ‘ Ž 1 ˜ • ’ Œ ¢ 1 ˜ Ž œ 1 — ˜ 1 Œ ˜ Ÿ Ž › ñ , 1 û Š ü 1 œ Ž 1 ˜ › 1 ‘ ’ › Ž 1 ˜ › 1 › Ž   Š › ï 1 û ‹ ü 1 œ Ž 1 ˜ › 1 › Š Œ ’ — ð 1 ™ Š Œ Ž – Š ” ’ — ð 1 › Ž • ’ Š ‹ ’ • ’ ¢ 1 › ’ Š • 1 ˜ › œ ™ Ž Ž , Ž œ ’ — ï 1 û Œ ü 1 œ Ž 1 ˜ › 1 ‘ Ž 1 Œ Š › › ’ Š Ž 1 ˜ 1 ˜ ˜ œ 1 û ˜ ‘ Ž › 1 ‘ Š — 1 œ Š – ™ • Ž œ ü 1 ’ — 1 Œ ˜ — — Ž Œ ’ ˜ — 1   ’ ‘ 1 Š — ¢ 1 › Š Ž 1 ˜ › ‹ ž œ ’ — Ž œ œ ï ’ – ’ Š ’ ˜ — œ 1 › Ž — Ž › Ž 1 ’ — ˜ ™ Ž › Š ’ Ÿ Ž 1 ‹ ¢ 1 Ž Œ ’ ˜ — 1 _ [ 1 ˜ 1 ‘ Ž 1 ˜ Š 1 › Š — œ ™ ˜ › 1 Œ 1 W _ ^ ] 1 û Š • Š ¢ œ ’ Š ü 1 ˜ › 1 Ž Œ ’ ˜ — 1 ^ 1 ˜ ‘ Ž 1 ˜ ˜ › 1 Ž ‘ ’ Œ • Ž œ 1 û ‘ ’ › 1 Š › ¢ 1 ’ œ ” œ 1 Š — 1 ˜ – ™ Ž — œ Š ’ ˜ — ü 1 Œ 1 û Š ™ 1 W ^ _ ü 1 Ž ™ ž ‹ • ’ Œ 1 ˜ 1 ’ — Š ™ ˜ › Ž 1 ˜ › 1 Ž Œ ’ ˜ — 1 ] ˜ 1 ‘ Ž 1 ˜ ˜ › 1 Ž ‘ ’ Œ • Ž œ 1 — œ ž › Š — Œ Ž 1 û ‘ ’ › 1 Š › ¢ 1 ’ œ ” œ ü 1 Œ 1 û Š ™ ï 1 _ V ü 1 Ž Š › Š 1 › ž — Ž ’ 1 Š › ž œ œ Š • Š – 1 Š › Ž 1 — ˜ ’ — Œ • ž Ž 1 ž — Ž › 1 ‘ ’ œ 1 ‘ Ž Š ’ — ï & Ž 1 Œ Ž › ’ ¢ 1 ‘ Š 1 ‘ Ž 1 ˜ • ’ Œ ¢ 1 ˜ 1   ‘ ’ Œ ‘ 1 ‘ ’ œ 1 Ž › ’ ’ Œ Š Ž 1 › Ž • Š Ž œ 1 ’ œ 1 ’ œ œ ž Ž 1 ’ — 1 Š Œ Œ ˜ › Š — Œ Ž 1   ’ ‘ 1 ‘ Ž 1 ™ › ˜ Ÿ ’ œ ’ ˜ — œ 1 ˜ 1 Š › 1 1 ˜ 1 ‘ Ž 1 ˜ Š 1 › Š — œ ™ ˜ › 1 Œ ð 1 W _ ^ ] 1 û Š • Š ¢ œ ’ Š ü ï 1 ˜ ˜ › 1 Ž ‘ ’ Œ • Ž œ 1 û ‘ ’ › 1 Š › ¢ 1 ’ œ ” œ 1 Š — 1 ˜ – ™ Ž — œ Š ’ ˜ — ü 1 Œ 1 û Š ™ 1 W ^ _ ü 1 Ž ™ ž ‹ • ’ Œ 1 ˜ 1 ’ — Š ™ ˜ › Ž 1 Š — 1 ‘ Ž 1 ˜ ˜ › 1 Ž ‘ ’ Œ • Ž œ 1 — œ ž › Š — Œ Ž 1 û ‘ ’ › 1 Š › ¢ 1 ’ œ ” œ ü 1 Œ 1 û Š ™ 1 _ V ü 1 Ž Š › Š 1 › ž — Ž ’ 1 Š › ž œ œ Š • Š – ï ™ ™ › ˜ Ÿ Ž 1 — œ ž › Ž › œ ï IMPORTANT NOTICE If you are involved in an accident causing injury to any person or damage to any property or other vehicle you must: - (a) Try to obtain names and addresses of any witness to the accident. (b) Report to the Company immediately. (c) Refer to the Company immediately all communications received from the Police authorities. (d) Send to the Company immediately all letters received from third parties unanswered. (e) Not pay money to any party involved in the accident without the Company ‘s written permission. MUSTAHAK Sekiranya anda terlibat didalam sesuatu kemalangan yang menyebabkan kecenderaan kepada seseorang atau kerosakan sebarang harta atau kenderaan yang lain, anda mestilah: - (a) Cuba mendapatkan nama -nama dan alamat -alamat saksi -saksi kemalangan itu. (b) Lapurkan kepada Syarikat dengan segera. (c) Segera rujukan kepada Syarikat semua perhubungan -perhubungan yang terima daripada pihak yang berkuasa Polis. (d) Segera hantarkan kepada Syarikat semua surat -surat yang diterima daripada pihak ketiga tanpa jawapan. (e) Jangan membayar duit kepada sesiapa pun yang terlibat didalam kemalangan ini tanpa surat kebenaran dari pada Syarikat. Sijil Insuran Sijil ini tidak boleh ditukar milik kepada tuan punya baru kenderaan ini. Sekiranya insuran ini ditamatkan dalam masa tempuhnya, sijil ini hendaklah dikembalikan kepada Pengeluar insuran ini, atau sekiranya sijil ini telah hilang atau rosak, satu Surat Sumpah berkenaan dengannya mesti dibuat. Kegagalan menunaikan kewajiban ini adalah merupakan satu kesalahan dibawah perundangan insuran -wajib pihak ketiga. Sijil ini mestilah dikembalikan sekiranya insuran ini digantungkan didalam masa tempuhnya. Certificate of Insurance This Certificate is not transferable to a new owner of the vehicle. If for any reason the Insurance is terminated during its currency, the Certificate must be returned to the Insurer, or if the Certificate has been lost or destroyed a Statutory Declaration to that effect must be made. Failure to comply with this obligation is an offence under the Compulsory Third Party Insurance Legislation. The Certificate must be returned if the Insurance is suspended during its currency. KUALA LUMPUR Level 15, Menara Hap Seng 2, Plaza Hap Seng, No. 1, Jalan P.Ramlee, 50250 Kuala Lumpur Tel : 03-2050 8228 Fax : 03-2026 8086 KUANTAN No.A -43, A-45 & A-47, Lorong Tun Ismail 12 Sri Dagangan 2 25000 Kuantan, Pahang Tel : 09 – 515 7501 Fax : 09 – 515 7502 SEREMBAN No. 33 Ground Floor Lorong Haruan 5/2 Oakland Commerce Square 70200 Seremban, Negeri Sembilan Tel : 06 – 601 3501 Fax : 06 – 601 3503 SANDAKAN 1st Floor, Block 18, Lots 1 & 2, Bandar Indah, Mile 4 , North Road, 90000 Sandakan, Sabah Tel : 089 – 217 388 Fax : 089 – 215 388 KLANG 1st Floor, No 1. Lorong Tiara 1B, Bandar Baru Klang, 41150 Klang, Selangor Tel : 03-3343 6691 Fax : 03-3342 2571 IPOH Lot A-01-10, A-01-12, A-01-14 & MELAKA KOTA KINABALU TAWAU 1st Floor, Block 42, KLUANG 1st Floor, No. 7, A-01-16, 1st Floor, Wisma MFCB Greentown Business Centre No. 1, Persiaran Greentown 2 30450 Ipoh, Perak Tel : 05 – 255 1319 1st & 2nd Floor, No. 777, Jalan Hang Tuah, 75300 Melaka Tel: 06-289 4333 Fax: 06-289 4222 Suite 6.02 & 6.03, Level 6 Plaza Shell, No. 29, Jalan Tunku Abdul Rahman, 88000 Kota Kinabalu,Sabah Tel : 088 – 301 030 TB 330A, Fajar Complex, 91000 Tawau, Sabah Tel : 089 – 771 051 Fax : 089 – 764 079 Bangunan HLA Jalan Yayasan, 86000 Kluang, Johor Tel : 07-772 6501/774 5701 Fax : 07-774 5702 Fax : 05 – 253 7979 Fax : 088 – 301 110 JOHOR BAHRU PENANG KUCHING Suite 21-01,Level 21, Level 15, Hunza Tower, 22 & 22A, Jalan Rubber, SIBU SUNGAI PETANI Tingkat 1, No. 65, 1st Floor, 9C, Jalan Kampung Nyabor, Jalan Kampung Baru, Menara Jland, Johor Bahru City Centre, Jalan Tun Abdul Razak 80000 Johor Bahru, Johor Tel : 07 – 208 7800 No. 163E, JalanKelawei, Lots 344 & 345 Section 9, 10250 Penang 93400 Kuching, Sarawak Tel : 04 – 219 0800 Tel : 082-255 901/082 -259 204 Fax : 04 – 219 0999 Fax : 082-427 612 96000 Sibu, Sarawak. 08000 Sg Petani, Kedah Tel : 084-323 890/084 -347 008 Tel : 04-424 4180 Fax: 084-314 558 Fax : 04-423 4513 Fax : 07 – 276 3800 KOTA BHARU 3826, 1st Floor Jalan Hamzah 15050 Kota Bharu, Kelantan Tel : 09 – 748 1280 Fax : 09 – 748 3509 PETALING JAYA Unit 9-3 and 11-3 Block A, Jaya One No 72A, Jalan Universiti 46200 Petaling Jaya Tel : 03 – 79544208 Fax : 03 – 79544202/3 MIRI Unit No. D-2-17, Block D, Miri Times Square, Marina ParkCity, Jalan Bendahara, 98000 Miri, Sarawak Tel : 085 – 434 890 Fax : 085 – 419 002 BATU PAHAT No 31A& 32A , Jalan Kundang, Taman Bukit Pasir, 83000 Batu Pahat, Johor Tel : 07-433 6808 Fax : 07-433 7808 ALOR SETAR 1st Floor, No. 169, Susuran Sultan Abdul Hamid 11 Kompleks Perniagaan Sultan Abdul Hamid Fasa 2 05050 Alor Setar Kedah Darulaman Tel : 04-7722266 / 00 Fax : 04-7722255 THIS IS A COMPUTER GENERATED DOCUMENT AND IS AN ORIGINAL COPY. DOKUMEN INI ADALAH CETAKAN KOMPUTER DAN IA ADALAH SALINAN ASAL. lease find attached the PDF documents of articles for the Critical appraisal Summative assignment. You can select ANY ONE (1) of the articles and critically appraise it by using chosen appraisal tool Appraisal tool for Cross -Sectional Studies (AXI S) Critical appraisal (CA) is used to systematically assess research papers and to judge the reliability of the study being presented in the paper. CA also helps in assessing the worth and relevance of the study [1] . There are many key areas to CA including assessing suitability of the study to answer the hypothesised question and the possibility of introducing bias into the study . Identifying these key areas in CA requires good reporting of the study, if the study is poorly reported the appraisal of suitability and bias becomes difficult. The following appraisal tool was developed for use in appraising observational cross -sectional studies. It is designed to ad dress issues t hat are often apparent in cross -sectional studies and to aid the reader when assessing the quality of the study that they are appraising. The questions on the following pages are presented in the order that they should generally appear in a p aper. The aim of the tool is to aid systematic interpretation of a cross -sectional study and to inform decisions about the quality of the study being appraised. The appraisal tool comes with an explanatory help text which gives some background knowledge an d explanation as to what the questions are asking. The explanations are designed to inform why the questions are important. Clicking on a question will automatically take you to the relevant section in the help text. The appraisal tool has areas to record a “yes”, “no” or “don’t know” answer for each question and there is room for short comments as well. Contents Appraisal of Cross -sectional Studies ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 3 Introduction ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ......................... 4 Aims ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ 4 Methods ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................. 4 Study Design ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 4 Sample Size Justification ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ 4 Target (Reference) Population ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................ 4 Sampling Frame ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 4 Census ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ......................... 5 Sample Selection ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 5 Non -responders ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ............... 5 Measurement Va lidity & Reliability ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ............... 5 Statistics ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................... 6 Overall Methods ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 6 Results ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ . 6 Basic Data ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ....................... 6 Response Rate ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................. 6 Internally Consistent Results ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................... 6 Justified Discussions and Conclusions ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 7 Aim ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................. 7 Selection Bias ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 7 Non -response ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 7 Confounding ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ............... 7 Non -significant Results ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................... 7 Limitations ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... 8 Other ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ... 8 Conflicts of Interest ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ......... 8 Ethical Approval ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 8 References: ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................... 8 Appraisal of Cross -sectional Studies Question Yes No Don’t know/ Comment Introduction 1 Were the aims/objectives of the study clear? Methods 2 Was the study design appropriate for the stated aim(s)? 3 Was the sample size justified? 4 Was the target/reference population clearly defined? (Is it clear who the research was about?) 5 Was the sample frame taken from an appropriate population base so that it closely represented the target/reference population under investigation? 6 Was the selection process likely to select subjects/participants that were representative of the target/reference population under investigation? 7 Were measures undertaken to address and categorise non -responders? 8 Were the risk factor and outcome variables measured appropriate to the aims of the study? 9 Were the risk factor and outcome variables measured correctly using instruments/measurements that had been trialled, piloted or published previously? 10 Is it clear what was used to determined statistical significance and/or precision estimates? (e.g. p -values, confidence intervals) 11 Were the methods (including statistical methods) sufficiently described to enable them to be repeated? Results 12 Were the basic data adequately described? 13 Does the response rate raise concerns about non -response bias? 14 If appropriate, was information about non -responders described? 15 Were the results internally consistent? 16 Were the results presented for all the analyses de scribed in the methods ? Discussion 17 Were the authors' discussions and conclusions justified by the results? 18 Were the limitations of the study discussed? Other 19 Were there any funding sources or conflicts of interest that may affect the authors’ interpretation of the results? 20 Was ethical approval or consent of participants attained? Introduction The introduction serves to establish the context of the work that is about to be presented in the text of the paper. Relevant primary literature should be discussed and referenced throughout the introduction. The history and current understanding of the pr oblem being researched should be presented. This should be concluded giving a rational as to why the current study is being presented and what the aims and/or hypothesis under investigated are [2,3] . Aims The aim (s) of the study tells us if the study addresses an appropriate and clearly focused question. If the aim i s not clearly stated or not stated at all, it will be difficult and in some cases impossible to assess the extent to which the study objectives were achieved. Ideally, an aim should be stated both at the beginning of the abstract and at the end of the intr oduction [3] . If the answer to question 1 is no, then it will make it difficult to assess some of the other questions in the critical appraisal process. Methods The methods section is used to present the experimental study design of the paper. The methods should be described clearly in easy to u nderstand language and clearly identify measures, exposures and outcomes being used in the study [4] . More specific issues are address ed below. Study Design Question 2 is used to assess the appropriateness of using a cross -sectional study to achieve the aim (s) of the study. Cross -sectional studies are observational studies that pro vide a description of a population at a given time , and are useful in assessing prevalence and for testing for associations and differences between groups [5] . Examples of cross -sectional designs include point -in-time surve ys, analysis of records and audits of practice [6] . The reader should try and decipher if a cross -sectional study design is appropriate for the questions being asked by the researcher. Sample Size Justification Sample size justification is crucial as sample size profoundly affects the significance of the outcomes of the study. If the sample size is too small then the conclusions drawn from the study will be under powered and may be inaccurate. This can occur by failing to detect an effect which truly exists (type II error) sometimes referred to as a “false negative”. The probability of a type I error is also taken into account when determining sample size. A type I error is drawing significant conclusions when n o real difference exists and is a function of the p-value (see Statistics section below ) sometimes referred to as a “false positive”. Question 3 asks if sample size justification was reported , but it should also be clear what methods were used to determin e the sample size. In some cases clustering of observations within groups can occur (e.g. patients within hospitals or livestock within herds ) and this should be taken into account if sample size has been determined. It should be clear whether the inferenc es drawn actually relate to the attributes for which the sample size was calculated [7] . If sample size justification isn’t given or restrictions make it difficult to reach the desired sample size then this should be declared in the text. Target (Reference) Population The target or reference population is the overall population that the research is directed towards. When doing a cross - sectional study, a target population is the overall population you are undertaking the study to make conclusions about or the population at risk of acquiring the condition being investigated [8–10] e.g. the total female population in the UK , or all dogs in the USA with cardiovascular disease. (See Figure 1) Question 4 asks if this is clearly defined in the study. It is important that this is understood both by the researcher and the reader; if it is not clearly defined then inferences made by the researcher may be inappropriate . Sampling Frame As a reader you need to determine if the sample frame being used is representative of the target population. The study population should be taken from the target p opulation; units from this study population have information that is accessible and available which allows them t o be placed in the study . The sampling frame is the list or source of the study population that the researcher has used when trying to recruit participants into the study (Figure 1) . Ideally it should be exactly the same composition or structure as the tar get population. I n practice it is generally much smaller, but should still be representative of the target population. Generally, for convenience, the sampling frame is a list of units that are within the target population e.g. list of telephone owning hou seholds, computerised patient records etc. A sample of units is selected from the study population to take part in the study and is generally only a small proportion of the study population (see Sample Selection below) - this proportion ratio is known as t he sampling fraction. It i s very important that the sampling frame is representative of the target population as results from the study are going to be used to make assumptions about the target population [8–10] . Figure 1 Convenience sampling can be carried out in some situations and are used because the participants are easy to recruit. Convenience sample s generally lead to non -representative or biased samples and therefore cannot be used to make assumptions about the characteristics of the target population [11] . Convenience samples are often used for pilot or analytical studies where the need for a representative sample is not required [12] , however the authors should make this clear in the text. Census A census is where the target population and the study participants are the same at the time the census is taken. In theory questions 5, 6 and 7 don’t apply to census studies. However even if a study is described as a census it should be very clearly stated where the study participants have been recruited from , and the reader should make the decision if the study truly is a census. A census may include all the population from the sample frame, but not all the target population; in this scenario questions 5 to 7 need to be addressed. Sample Selection Question 6 is used to establish how the research ers got from the sample frame to the participants in the study. It examines the potential for selection bias and how the researcher developed methods to deal with t his. Th e sample selection process is important in determining to what extent the results of the study are generalizable to the target population. For question 6 we are looking in depth at how the sample (study participants) was selected from the sampling f rame. It is important to know if there were any inclusion or exclusion criteria used, as inappropriate criteria can dramatically shift how representative the sample is of the target population [8,10,13] . Selection bias can occur if every unit in the sample frame doesn’t have an equal chance of been included in the final study [11,14] . Randomisation is used to ensure that each participant in the sampling frame has an equal chance of being included in the sample. If methods of randomisation are not used, not described or are not truly random, this may lead to a non -representative sample being selected and hence affect the results of the study [10,11] . There are many other situational issues to take into account when determining if the population in the sample is likely to represe nt the target population . Often these issues are outside the control of the researcher, but sometimes are overlooked. One such issue is the healthy worker effect which is a well -known phenomenon in human cross - sectional studies [13] . An example of this is, a res earcher trying to do a cross -sectional study to determine health factors in a factory population and decides to sample from workers at work on a particular day . Unfortunately there is a tendency to over select healthy workers as ill workers may tend to be at home on the day of selection . This will in turn lead to inference s been made about the health of the worker population but is only relevant to healthy workers and not ill workers . A veterinary example of this is a researcher trying to do a cross -sectional study to determine health factors in the general dog population and decides to sam ple from a local park. Unfortunately there is a tendency to over select healthy animals as sick animals will tend to be left at home and not taken for a walk . This will in turn lead to inference been made about the health of the dog population but is only relevant to healthy dogs and not sick dogs. Self -selection is another example of selection bias that can be introduced and should be assessed [13] . For example , when using a postal questionnaire to exami ne eating habits and weight control , people who are overweight might read the survey and be less inclined to complete and return the survey than those with normal weight leading to over representation of people with normal weight . Similarly , if using a pos tal questionnaire to examine mastitis levels on cattle farms, farmers that have a high somatic cell count s (SCC) might be less inclined to complete the survey than those with normal or low SCC leading to over representation of farms with good SCC (see Non-responders below) . Non -responders Non -response in cross -sectional studies is a difficult area to address . A non -responder is someone who do es not respond either because they refuse to, cannot be contacted, or because their details cannot be documented. As a rule, if participants don’t respond it is often difficult and sometimes impossible to gain any information about them . However other baseline statistics may exist that can be used as a comparator to assess how representative the sample is [14] e.g. age, sex, socio -economic classification . Methods used, if any, should be well described so that the results from the analyses can be interpreted. This is important as non - responders may be from a specific group, which can lead to a shift in the baseline data away from that group. This shift can lead to results that don’t represent the target population. In some situations the sampling frame doesn’t have a finite list or a fully defined base line population. This also makes it difficult, and in some cases impossible, to quantify non - response and it may be inappropriate to do so in these situations. If the researchers are using non -defined populations this should also be declared clearly in the materials and methods section [15,16] . Measurement Validity & Reliability Measureme nt validity is a gauge of how accurately the study measurements used assess the concept s that the researcher is attempting to explore. Measurement r eliability is a gauge of the accuracy of the measurements taken or the procedures used during the study. Que stion 8 is used to address the concepts of measurement validity, and is specifically aimed to address the appropriateness of the measurements being used. The importance of measurement validity is that it gives weight to applying the statistical inferences from the study to members of the target population. If inappropriate measures are used in the study it could lead to misclassification bias and it will be difficult to determine to what extent the study results are relevant to the target population [12,17] . Question 9 is an attempt to gauge the measurement reli ability of the study measures. Measurements must be able to be reproduced and produce identical results if measured repeatedly, so that the measurements would be exactly the same if performed by another researcher. With this in mind, the measurements must be of international or globally accepted standards (e.g. IU standards) where possible and appropriate. If they are being used for the first time they must be trialled, or in the case of questionnaires, they should be piloted before being used. Statistics While interpretation of statistics can be quite difficult, a basic understanding of statistics can help you to assess the quality of the paper. Often many different methods can be used correctly to test the same data, b ut as there is such a wide range available, knowing what tests are most appropriate in particular situations can be hard to decipher. There is an expectation that the researcher has this understanding or has at least sought statistical assistance to ensur e that the correct methods are used. Therefore for question 10 the emphasis for the reader is that the statistical methods, software packages used and the statistical significance levels are clearly stated even if the paper is just presenting descriptive statistics. The statistical significance level is usually described as a p -value. In most cases the p -value, at which the null hypothesis is rejected, is set at 0.05. The higher the p -value is set the greater the possibility of introducing a type I error. Confidence intervals should also be declared with p -values or instead of p -values as an indication of the precision of the estimates . It is usual to present a confidence interval of 95% which means that the research ers were 95 per cent confident that the true population value of the outcome lies between these intervals . This can be used to compare groups where an overlap would suggest no difference and a gap between confidence intervals would s uggest a difference ( Figure 2). Overall Methods Question 1 1 asks if the methods are sufficiently described to enable them to be repeated. If there are sections or even small pieces of information missi ng it could make a great difference for the reader when interpreting the results and the discussion as they may be unsure if the correct methods are being used. Results The results section of a paper is solely for the purpose of declaring the results of th e data analysis and no opinion should be stated in this section. This gives the reader the opportunity to examine the results unhindered by the opinion of the researcher. It is important for the reader to form their own ideas or opinions about the results before progressing to the discussion stages. Basic Data Question 1 2 asks for a description of the basic data. Basic descriptive analysis aims to summarise the data, giving detailed information about the sample and the measurements taken in the study. The basic data give s an overview of the process of recruitment and if the sampling methods used to recruit individuals were successful in selecting a representative sample of the target population. If the sampling methods are unsuccessful in selecting a repres entative sample of the target population , those participants included in the study can often be dif ferent to the target population; this lead s to inaccurate estimates of prevalence, incidence or risk factors for disease. Descriptive data of the measurement s taken in the study give an overview of any differences between the groups, and may give insight into some of the reasons for statistical inferences that are made later in the paper. Response Rate As stated previously it can often be difficult to deal wi th non -responders. Question 1 3 requires that there is some attempt made to quantify the level of non -response by the researchers and asks the reader to interpret if the response rate is likely to lead to non -response bias. Question 14 is examining if any i nformation on non -responders was available and if so were the y comparable to those that did respond as this could help in answering question 13. Non - response bias occurs if the non -responders are substantially different to the rest of the population in the sample [15] . Internally Consistent Results Figure 2 Question 15 is an exploration of the basic data and asks that the reader spends some time exploring the numbers given in the results ; in the text, figures and tables . Information about the level of missing data should also be declared in the results. It is important to check that the numbers add up in the tables and the text. If the study has recruited 100 participants , the tables and the text should include data about 100 participants. I f not , the missing data should be clearly declared and the reason for its non -appearance explained. Compr ehensive Description of Results It is important to check that all the methods described previously lead to data in the results section (question 1 6). Sometimes the results from all analyses are not described. If this is noted it will be unclear whether the researcher found non-significant results or just didn’t describe what was found. If there are results missing that you would expect to find, there is a concern that these missing results may not have been what the researcher wanted to see and hence the authors have omitted them. It is also important that the significance level declared in the methods is adhered to. As the reader, it is important to w atch out for phrases such as “tended towards significance” in the text, and if these are used to pay close attention to the results. Discussion The discussion of a paper should s ummarise key results of the study objectives . It should give an overall inter pretation of the results of the study keeping in mind the limitations and the external validity of the document. The discussion section should also address both significant and non - significant findings of the study and make comparisons with other research, citing their sources [2,4] . Justified Discussion s and Conclusions In ques tion 17 there is an expectation that the researcher gives an overall summary of the main finding s of the study and discusses these in detail . It is important that the reader considers the study as a whole when reading the researcher’s conclusion. If the researcher’s conclusion is different or is more definitive than the study suggests it should be, it can be an indication that the researcher has misunderstood their own study or has other motives or interests for coming to that conclusion. It is up to the reader to explore the discussion full y in order to answer question 17 . The following points should be taken into account: Aim In the discussion section the researcher should discuss all results that pertain to the overall aim of the study, even if they are not significant. If some results are overlooked in the discussion it could suggest that the researcher either doesn’t believe the results, or doesn’t want to draw attention to controversial discoveries from the study and may therefore be giving a biased o verview of the research conducted. Selection Bias There is an expectation that the researcher discusses selection biases and takes these into account when interpreting the results of the study. This also gives a clear view of whether the researcher has an overall understanding of the study design. (See notes on selection bias in the methods section). Non -response Was there an interpretation of the results that included non - response? This is particularly important if the response rate was low, as non -respon ders may be a specific group, and lead to a shift in the baseline data (See notes on non - response in the methods section). Confounding Confounding is a major threat to the validity of practical inferences made from statistical analyses about cause and effe ct. Confounding occurs when the outcome of interest is associated with two different independent variables and one of those variables is closely associated with the outcome only because it is closely associated with the other variable (confounder). This c an sometimes be accounted for using statistical methods however sometimes these associations are missed because the confounder isn’t measured or isn’t considered to be a confounder in the analyses. What then happens is an erroneous conclusion is made ; that the variable might have a causal relationsh ip with the outcome . The researcher should consider confounding both in the analyses and in the interpretation of the results [18] . An example would be where in a study on cancer a researcher concludes that increased al cohol intake causes lung cancer; however there was confounding in the sample that the researcher didn’t discover. People in the study that were inclined to drink more alcohol were also inclined to smoke more (the conf ounder) and smoking was the cause of lung cancer not increased alcohol intake. Similarly , a study was undertaken to examine surgical deaths in cats. The researcher concluded that cats that had gaseous anaesthesia were more likely to die during surgery than those that had just injectable anaesthesia. There was confounding in the sample: cats that underwent surgery using gaseous anaesthesia were more likely to be ill or undergoing major surgical procedures (the confounders) and this was the cause for cats bei ng more likely to die during surgery and not the use of gaseous anaesthetics. Non -significant Results Discussing n on -significant results is as important as discussing significant results and should also be included in the discussion , especially if they ha ve a direct association with the aim being investigated. Non -significant results can be influenced by factors associated with study design and sample size. If there are biases introduced during the study design this can lead to non -significant results that in reality may be significant (this can work the other way around as well). If there are only small differences between groups , non -significant results may be apparent because the sample size is too small (see sample size justification). Again it is impor tant that the researcher has a clear understanding of this and conveys that in the discussion. Limitations In question 18 we explore whether limitations are discussed. Unfortunately all forms of research have some limitations. The question here is whether the researcher has an understanding of the limitations involved in their study design. If this issue is not explored, this is cause for concern that the limitations don’t stop at the design and that the researcher has a poor understanding of the study as a whole. Other Conflicts of Interest It is very important that conflicts of interest or bodies involved in funding the study are declared in the text (question 19 ). This can give an impression as to background reasons for carrying out the study . Where stud ies are funded by a specific agency the researcher may unconsciously interpret in favour of the agencies’ ideals ; if the researcher has worked in a specific area their own ideas and beliefs may affect the interpretation of the results. It is up to the reader to identify these and come to the conclusion as to whether these conflicts of interest are relevant or not. This can be declared in different areas of the text and should be stated . 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