social work with groups

DISCUSSION WEEK 5

As based on the materials for this week, briefly describe in which categories you’ve observed various aspects of diversity among yourself as well as those among your Task Group – Treatment Proposal Paper members. In what ways might observed diversity support achieving group goals? What types of culturally competent practices mentioned in Chapter 7 might further support maximizing diversity within your assigned group? REPLY TO TWO CLASSMATES.

Task Group – Observation Paper

This is an individual ASSIGNMENT

In this folder you will find:

1. Video describing the assignment (remember to also refer to the syllabus for instructions for the assignment)

2. Meeting minutes template that you will use to take notes of the meeting you choose for this assignment.

3. Links to school board and council meetings that you can peruse to select the one you want to use for this assignment.

Logistics Reminder:

· Late papers will receive an 11% deduction for each day late. After 3 days late, no papers will be accepted for credit.

· Papers must include citations and a reference page in current APA format.

· Review the grading rubric for this assignment. Can be found under the left-hand menu titled “Grading Rubrics” or in this folder.

LINKS FOR THE VIDEOS FOR THE MEETINGS

https://www.houstontx.gov/htv/ City of Houston Council Meetings online

A link to watch videos of city of Houston Council meetings

http://www.houstontx.gov/council/meetingsinfo.html
Attending live Houston city council meetings

This link contains information on how to attend a Houston city council meeting in person

https://www.houstonisd.org/Page/31531 HISD School board meetings online

Link to online school board meetings.

SOCIAL WORK WITH GROUPS

WHAT: In this assignment, you will more closely analyze the purpose and function of either a city council or school board–which are examples of formal task groups formed to accomplish the goal of governance. Both types of groups offer clear structures and are microcosms for understanding power structures that are important for social workers to understand and learn how to navigate to ensure social and economic justice as well as for solving social problems.

HOW: Select a task group that you wish to observe (both city council and school board have recorded meetings available to the public). Watch the board meeting and take notes using a meeting minute template format.

Follow the outline below for writing your paper (reference your textbook for definition of terms used in the outline).

Task Group Observation I. Introduction a. Which group did you select to analyze? b. Provide the date of the meeting you observed along with an overall summary of the topics covered during the meeting. c. Provide a thesis that gives an overview of what the remainder of your paper will cover

II. Group Purpose a. What is the mission and purpose of the task group? b. Who are the members of the group being analyzed? c. How were members selected for the group? d. What is the role of each general member? e. What are special roles assigned to some group members (e.g., chair, president, secretary, etc.)? f. What are the duties of each of these special roles?

III. Group Decision Making a. What is the formal process for you group to make a decision? b. Which of the 6 approaches to decision making, referenced in Zastrow and Hessenauer (2019) does your group employ? c. Define your selected approach to decision making and explain how this approach exemplifies your group’s decision-making methods. d. Please discuss whether you think this approach is effective. Explain why or why not.

IV. Group Dynamics a. Provide a definition of resistive and disruptive members. Then proceed to answer a.i.or a.ii.: i. If there was a resistive or disruptive member, answer the following questions:

1. Who was the resistive or disruptive member? 2. How did this person demonstrate their resistive or disruptive behavior? Provide an example. 3. How was the resistive or disruptive behavior resolved? ii. If there were no resistive or disruptive group member, answer the following questions: 1. What conditions in the group dynamics or the environment do you think prevented resistive or disruptive behavior? 2. What rules or norms in the group do you think prevented resistive or disruptive behavior?

V. Group problem solving a. Please identify one problem that was raised at the meeting you observed. b. Zastrow and Hessenauer (2019) identified 6 steps for solving a problem. At which stage of the problem-solving approach did your group appear to be in with regards to this problem.

c. What is a barrier to this group’s effective resolution of this problem. At which stage of the problem-solving approach did your group appear to be in with regards to this problem.

d. Define this barrier.

e. Discuss why you think this is a barrier for your group. Provide examples to supportyour argument.

VI. Group Conflict a. Please identify members who appeared to be in conflict during the meeting (note: due to the nature of the group chosen, the conflict may be between group members or it may be between group and individuals who are external to the group. For example, a conflict may arise between city council and the city’s citizens who are not members of the city council).

b. Which technique would you recommend for resolving this conflict? Select one of the10 techniques identified by Zastrow and Hessenauer (2019).

i. Define the key elements of your selected technique

ii. Discuss why you believe this technique will be beneficial to resolving this conflict VII. Analysis a. What were your overall impressions of the group meeting? Was the meeting productive or counterproductive? Provide specific examples to support your response.

b. What was the overall impression of the group climate (e.g., was is permissive, flexible, collaborative, hostile)? Give examples to support your impression.

c. In what way can the group meetings be improved? Discuss at least two areas of Improvement.

LOGISTICS: Students who wish to observe a task group meeting that is not the HISD school board or the City of Houston City Council, must receive approval from the instructor to ensure that the task group would be a good fit for the assignment.

The meeting minutes must include a header with the date, the name of the task group, the location of the meeting and members present. Please note that you will not receive credit for minutes created by anyone other than you. The paper must follow the outline and be written in paragraph format. The paper must be double spaced, with one-inch margins. Font must be 12 pt. font Arial/Times New Roman or 11 pt. calibiri

Student name: __________________________________

Group Analysis Paper

SOCW 347 Human Behavior and the Social Environment II

[Spring, 2019]

Grading Rubric

0= Did not complete component 1= Work does not meet the expectations of assignment with regard to clarity, attention to specifics of assignment and presentation; fails to demonstrate an understanding of topic addressed 2= Work meets some expectations of assignment but does not do so in a comprehensive/integrative manner; many elements are not addressed/ addressed poorly; demonstrates a basic understanding of the area/topic addressed 3= Work meets many expectations of the assignment with regard to clarity, attention to the specifics of assignment, and presentation, but does not address all thoroughly; demonstrates a good understanding of area/topic addressed 4= Work meets nearly all expectations of the assignment with regard to clarity, attention to specifics of the assignment and presentation; demonstrates a very good understanding of the area/topic addressed 5= Work meets or exceeds all expectations with regard to clarity, attention to the specifics of assignment and presentation; demonstrates a clear understanding of area/topic addressed
Comp.	Practice Behavior	Scale (0=not at all; 1=poor; 2=weak; 3=adequate; 4=good; 5=excellent)
1.3	Demonstrate professional demeanor in behavior; appearance; and oral, written, and electronic communication
	Grammar and sentence construction	0	1	2	3	4	5
	Followed correct 6th edition APA guidelines in text and in references page	0	1	2	3	4	5
	Paragraph format, double space, 1 inch margins, 12 pt. font	0	1	2	3	4	5
	Followed formatting for paper header (name, date, etc.) and paragraph section headers.	0	1	2	3	4	5
3.1	Apply understanding of social, economic, and environmental justice to advocate for human rights at the individual and system levels.
	All items addressed in section F	0	1	2	3	4	5
	Quality of information presented in section F	0	1	2	3	4	5
4.1	Use and translate research evidence to inform and improve practice, policy, and service delivery
	Integration of external websites, textbook and article as required	0	1	2	3	4	5
	All items addressed in section C	0	1	2	3	4	5
	Quality of information presented in section C	0	1	2	3	4	5
7.1	Collect and organize data, and apply critical thinking to interpret information from clients and constituencies
	All items addressed in section A	0	1	2	3	4	5
	The quality of information presented in section A	0	1	2	3	4	5
7.2	Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment data from clients and constituencies;

	All items addressed in section B	0	1	2	3	4	5
	Quality of information presented in section B	0	1	2	3	4	5
	All items addressed in section D	0	1	2	3	4	5
	Quality of information presented in section D	0	1	2	3	4	5
	All items addressed in section E	0	1	2	3	4	5
	Quality of information presented in section E	0	1	2	3	4	5

Comments: (see comments in paper)	TOTAL GRADE = ________/85 points

Title of Meeting

Location:
Date:
Time:
Attendees:

Agenda items + Discussion

Please fill in notes here.

Action items	Person Responsible	Date

Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States

Tenth edition

Charles H. Zastrow, MSW, PhD
Professor Emeritus
University of Wisconsin–Whitewater

Sarah L. Hessenauer
Associate Professor
University of Wisconsin–Whitewater

Social Work
with Groups

C O M P R E H E N S I V E P R A C T I C E
A N D S E L F – C A R E

empowerment series

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Printed in the United States of America
Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2017

Social Work with Groups: Comprehensive
Practice And Self-Care, Tenth Edition
Charles H. Zastrow and Sarah L. Hessenauer

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WCN: 02-300

To Kathy, My wife and soul mate

Contents
Preface xv
About the Authors xxi

Chapter 1
Groups: Types and Stages
of Development 1
Historical Development of Group Work 1

Settlement Houses 1
Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) 2

Types of Groups 3
Social Conversation 3
Recreation/Skill Building 3
Education 3
Task 4
Problem Solving and Decision Making 5
Focus 5
Self-Help and Mutual Aid 5
Socialization 7
Treatment 8

Common Types of Treatment Groups 8
Psychoeducational Groups 8
Symptom Management Groups 9
Anger Management Groups 9
Life Skills Groups 9
Social Skills Groups 9
Process Groups 10
Stress Management Groups 10
Specialty Groups 10
Sensitivity and Encounter Training 13

Initial Development of Groups 15
Determining Objectives 15
Size 15
Open-Ended versus Closed-Ended Groups 16
Duration 16

Stages of Groups 17
Intake 17
Selection of Members 17
Assessment and Planning 17
Group Development and Intervention 18
Evaluation and Termination 18

Models of Group Development Over Time 18
Garland, Jones, and Kolodny Model 18
EXERCISE 1.1 The Garland, Jones, and Kolodny Model 20
Tuckman Model 20
EXERCISE 1.2 The Tuckman Model 21
Northen and Kurland Model 21
EXERCISE 1.3 The Northen and Kurland Model 22
Sequential-Stage Models of Group Development 22
Bales Model 23

Group Cohesion 23
EXERCISE 1.4 Variables that Affect Group Cohesion 24

Membership and Reference Groups 25
Breaking the Ice 26

EXERCISE 1.5 Understanding Membership and Reference
Groups 26

Experiential Learning 27
Ethics and Guidelines for Conducting Exercises 27
Pitfalls to Avoid in Conducting Class Exercises 29

Summary 29
Group Exercises 29

EXERCISE A Getting Acquainted 29
EXERCISE B Introducing to a Partner 30
EXERCISE C Personal Expectations for the Group 30
EXERCISE D Searching for Descriptors 30
EXERCISE E Why I Decided to Be a Social Worker 31

Competency Notes 31
Key Terms and Concepts 31

Chapter 2
Social Group Work
and Social Work Practice 32
Definition of Social Work 32
Relationship Between Social Work and Social

Welfare 33
What Is the Profession of Social Work? 34
Generalist Social Work Practice 34

EXERCISE 2.1 Your Areas of Interest in Social Work 35
A Variety of Roles 36

Enabler 36

vi Contents

Broker 36
Advocate 36
Empowerer 37
Activist 37
Mediator 37
Negotiator 37
Educator 37
Initiator 38
Coordinator 38
Researcher 38
Group Facilitator 38
Public Speaker 38

A Systems Perspective 38
EXERCISE 2.2 Your Interest in Various Social Work Roles 39

Medical Model Versus Ecological Model 40
Medical Model 40
EXERCISE 2.3 Understanding the Major Mental
Disorders 41
Ecological Model 41
EXERCISE 2.4 Understanding the Medical Model and the
Ecological Model 44

Goals of Social Work Practice 44
Goal 1: Enhance the Clients’ Problem-Solving, Coping,
and Developmental Capacities 44
Goal 2: Link Clients with Systems that Provide Resources,
Services, and Opportunities 44
Goal 3: Promote the Effective and Humane Operation of
Systems that Provide Resources and Services 45
Goal 4: Develop and Improve Social Policy 45
Goal 5: Promote Human and Community Well-Being 45
EXERCISE 2.5 Your Interest in Achieving the Goals of Social
Work 46
EXERCISE 2.6 Applying the Problem-Solving Approach 47

A Problem-Solving Approach 47
Strengths Perspective 47

EXERCISE 2.7 The Strengths Perspective Applied to a
Homeless Family 50

Micro, Mezzo, and Macro Practice 51
Social Casework 51
Case Management 51
Group Work 52
Group Treatment 53
Family Treatment 53
Community Organization 53
Policy Analysis 54
EXERCISE 2.8 Identifying Your Interest in Various Social Work
Activities 54
Administration 55

Knowledge, Skills, and Values Needed for Social
Work Practice 55
Social Work Competencies 55

Social Group Work as a Component of Social
Work Practice 59

Summary 59

Group Exercises 60
EXERCISE A Options Planning 60
EXERCISE B Social Work with Groups and Generalist
Practice 61
EXERCISE C Assessing Social Work Competencies and
Behaviors in Field Placement 62
EXERCISE D Social Work Value Issues 66
EXERCISE E Olga and Igor 69
EXERCISE F Genie and the Magic Lantern 69
EXERCISE G Pregnancy and Tragedy 70

Competency Notes 70
Key Terms and Concepts 71

Chapter 3
Group Dynamics:
Leadership 72
Approaches to Leadership 72

The Trait Approach 72
EXERCISE 3.1 The Charismatic Leader 74
The Position Approach 74
The Leadership-Style Approach 75
EXERCISE 3.2 Machiavellian Leaders 75
The Distributed-Functions Approach 76
EXERCISE 3.3 Authoritarian, Democratic,
and Laissez-Faire Leaders 77
Servant Leadership Approach 77
EXERCISE 3.4 Applying the Distributed-Functions
Approach 78
EXERCISE 3.5 Servant Leaders 79

Leadership Roles 80
Task and Maintenance Roles 80
Other Roles 81
EXERCISE 3.6 Your Task and Maintenance Contributions
to a Group 82

Power and Influence in Groups 82
Power Bases in Groups 83

Reward Power 83
Coercive Power 84
Legitimate Power 84
Referent Power 84
Expert Power 84
EXERCISE 3.7 The Power Bases in This Class 85

Effects of Unequal Power 86
Coleadership of a Group 87

Advantages 87
EXERCISE 3.8 Groups of Equal Power and Unequal
Power 88
Disadvantages 89

Guidelines for Forming and Leading a
Group 89

Contents vii

Homework 89
Planning a Session 91
Relaxing Before You Start a Meeting 91
Cues upon Entering the Meeting Room 92
Seating Arrangements 92
Introductions 92
Clarifying Roles 93
Agenda 93
Additional Guidelines for Leading a Group 93

Standards for Social Work Practice with
Groups 94

Strengths-Based Leadership 101
Summary 101
Group Exercises 102

EXERCISE A Desensitizing Fears of Leading a Group 102
EXERCISE B Task Functions and Group Maintenance
Functions 102
EXERCISE C Power Bases 103
EXERCISE D Leading a Group 104

Competency Notes 104
Key Terms and Concepts 105

Chapter 4
Group Dynamics:
Goals and Norms 106
Setting Personal and Group Goals 106

Personal Goals 107
EXERCISE 4.1 Identifying Your Personal Goals 107

Hidden Agendas 108
EXERCISE 4.2 Hidden Agendas and Their Effects 108

Establishing Group Goals 109
Operational and Measurable Goals 110
EXERCISE 4.3 Group Goals and Personal Goals in This
Class 111

Competition Versus Cooperation 112
EXERCISE 4.4 The Effects of a Competitive Group
Member 113

The Nominal Group Approach 114
Group Norms 115

How Norms Are Learned and Developed 116
EXERCISE 4.5 Group Norms in This Class 117

Conformity 118
EXERCISE 4.6 Your Yielding to Group Pressure 120
Do’s and Don’ts of Norms 121
EXERCISE 4.7 Understanding Idiosyncrasy Credits 121
Problems of Conformity 122

Types of Disruptive Behavior 122
The Bear 122
The Eager Beaver 122
The Clown 123

The Psychoanalyzer 123
The Withholder 123
The Beltliner 124
The Guiltmaker 124
The Catastrophe Crier 124
The Subject Changer 124
The Whiner 124
The Benedict Arnold 124
The Trivial Tyrannizer 124
The Shirker 124
The Power Grabber 125
The Paranoiac 125

Handling Disruptive Behavior 125
Minimizing Disruptiveness 125
Leader Confrontation 126
Group Confrontation 126

Reducing the Likelihood of Disruptive
Behavior 127
EXERCISE 4.8 Handling Disruptive Behavior of a Group
Member 128

Summary 129
Group Exercises 130

EXERCISE A Setting Personal and Group Goals 130
EXERCISE B A Sphinx Foundation Grant 131
EXERCISE C The Nominal Group Approach 131
EXERCISE D Identifying and Changing Group Norms 132
EXERCISE E An Ornery Instructor 133
EXERCISE F How Group Decisions Affect Values 133
EXERCISE G Confrontation and I-Messages 135
EXERCISE H Confronting and Being Confronted by
Others 135

Competency Notes 136
Key Terms and Concepts 137

Chapter 5
Verbal and Nonverbal
Communication 138
A Model of Communication 138

One-Way Communication 139
Two-Way Communication 140
EXERCISE 5.1 The Emotional Effects of One-Way
Communication 141
Culture and Communication 142

Perception 142
The Perceptual Process 142
Physiological Influences 143
Sociopsychological Influences 144
EXERCISE 5.2 Using Defense Mechanisms 146
EXERCISE 5.3 Defensive Communication 147

Self-Disclosure 149
The Johari Window 150

viii Contents

EXERCISE 5.4 Feeling Good After Self-Disclosure 150
EXERCISE 5.5 Johari Windows 152

How to Communicate Effectively 153
Sender 153
Receiver 153
Listening Skills 154
Active Listening 154
I-Messages 155
EXERCISE 5.6 Learning to Use I-Messages 156
Collisions of Values 157
Technology and Groups 157
EXERCISE 5.7 Resolving Collisions of Values 158

Nonverbal Communication 159
Functions of Nonverbal Communication 159
EXERCISE 5.8 Interpreting Nonverbal Cues 160
Forms of Nonverbal Communication 161
Personal Boundaries 165
Territoriality 166
Voice 167
Physical Appearance 167
EXERCISE 5.9 Reading Nonverbal Cues 168
Environment 169
Other Nonverbal Cues 170

Summary 170
Group Exercises 171

EXERCISE A The Johari Window 171
EXERCISE B Defense Mechanisms 171
EXERCISE C Distortions in Transmitting Information 171
EXERCISE D The Intruder 172
EXERCISE E Active Listening 173
EXERCISE F My Nonverbal Communication 173
EXERCISE G Nonverbal Cues 174
EXERCISE H A Popular Faculty Member 174
EXERCISE I Double Messages 174
EXERCISE J The Flat Tire 175
EXERCISE K Communicating While Blindfolded 175
EXERCISE L Giving and Receiving Feedback About
Nonverbal Communication 176
EXERCISE M Zones of Personal Space 176

Competency Notes 177
Key Terms and Concepts 177

Chapter 6
Task Groups 178
A Variety of Task Groups 178
Guidelines for Leading Task Groups 179

Establishing the Group’s Purpose 179
Potential Sponsorship of the Task Group 179
Selecting Potential Members 179
Recruiting Members 179
Size of the Group 179
Orienting Members to the Group 180

Meeting Place and Room 180
First Meeting 180
Working with Resistive and Disruptive Members 180
The Middle Stages 181
Adjourning a Meeting 181
Evaluating and Terminating 181
EXERCISE 6.1 Successful and Unsuccessful Group
Experiences 182

Problem-Solving Approach 183
Identification and Definition 183
Assessment of Size and Causes 184
Development of Alternative Strategies 184
Assessment of Strategies 184
Selection and Implementation 184
Evaluation 184

Barriers to Effective Problem Solving 185
Inadequate Definitions 185
Invalid Hypotheses 185
Poor Communication 185
Lack of Skills 185
Lack of Resources 185
Lack of Motivation 185
Personality Differences 186

Brainstorming 186
Conflict 187
Techniques for Resolving Conflicts 187

Win-Lose Approach 187
EXERCISE 6.2 My Tolerance for Conflicts 188
No-Lose Problem Solving 189
Role Reversal 190
EXERCISE 6.3 Creativity Inspired by Conflict 191
Empathy 191
Inquiry 191
I-Messages 192
Disarming 192
Stroking 192
Letting Go or Forgiving 192
Mediation 192
EXERCISE 6.4 Disarming and Stroking 193
What If These Strategies Do Not Work? 195

Intergroup Conflict 196
EXERCISE 6.5 Resolving Your Conflicts Effectively 196

Decision Making 199
The Bases of Decisions 199

Approaches to Decision Making 200
Consensus 200
Simple Majority Vote 201
Two-Thirds or Three-Fourths Majority Vote 201
Delegated Decisions 202
Multiple Voting 202
Averaging Individual Opinions 203

Group Versus Individual Decision Making 203
Groupthink 204

EXERCISE 6.6 My Groupthink Experience 205

Contents ix

Summary 206
Group Exercises 207

EXERCISE A Suspended from High School 207
EXERCISE B Brainstorming 208
EXERCISE C Busing to Achieve Racial Integration 208
EXERCISE D Creative Thinking 210
EXERCISE E The Manhattan Glass 210
EXERCISE F Brainteasers 211
EXERCISE G Resolving Conflicts 212
EXERCISE H Funding Social Programs Involves Hard
Choices 213
EXERCISE I Consensus 214
EXERCISE J Subjective Influences on Merit Raises 214

Competency Notes 216
Key Terms and Concepts 216

Chapter 7
Working with Diverse
Groups 217
Definitions of Key Terms 217

EXERCISE 7.1 Some of My Stereotypes 219
Stereotyping and Multiculturalism:

A Perspective 221
Your Stereotypes and Preconceptions 222

EXERCISE 7.2 Questionnaire about Gays and Lesbians 223
Knowledge About Diverse Groups 225
Working with the LGBTIQQ Population in

Groups 228
Posture of Reciprocity 229
Which Intervention Techniques Work? 229

EXERCISE 7.3 Victimized in Iran 230
Anger Management 231
Cultural Communication 231

Ethnic-Sensitive Practice 233
Empowerment 234
Strengths Perspective 234

Culturally Competent Practice 234
EXERCISE 7.4 Cultural Competence in Social Work
Practice 235

Cultural Humility 236
The Rap Framework Fob Leading Multiracial

Groups 238
Recognize 238
Anticipate 239
Problem-Solve 239

Feminist Intervention 240
Principles of Feminist Therapy 241
EXERCISE 7.5 Feminist Intervention 243
Using Feminist Intervention in Groups 243

Group Development Stages in Women’s
Groups 245
Second Stage—Establishing a Relational Base 246
Third Stage—Mutuality and Interpersonal Empathy 246
Fourth Stage—Challenge and Change 246

Summary 246
Group Exercises 248

EXERCISE A Coming Out of the Closet 248
EXERCISE B Spaceship to Futura 248
EXERCISE C Feminist Intervention in Counseling 249
EXERCISE D Are You a Feminist? 249
EXERCISE E Double Standards 250
EXERCISE F Understanding Stereotypes 250

Competency Notes 251
Key Terms and Concepts 251

Chapter 8
Self-Help Groups 252
Mended Hearts: An Example 252
Definition and Characteristics 253
Classification of Self-Help Groups 254

Katz and Bender Classification 254
Powell Classification 255

Benefits of Self-Help Groups 255
Linkage with Social Workers 256

EXERCISE 8.1 Merits and Shortcomings of a Self-Help
Group 257

Starting a Self-Help Group 258
Online Self-Help Groups 260

EXERCISE 8.2 Checking Out Outline Self-Help Groups 261
EXERCISE 8.3 Using the American Self-Help Group
Clearinghouse 263

Summary 264
Group Exercises 265

EXERCISE A Alcoholics Anonymous 265
EXERCISE B Combating Terrorism 265

Competency Notes 265
Key Term and Concept 265

Chapter 9
Social Work with
Families 266
Diversity of Family Forms 266

EXERCISE 9.1 Composition and Strengths of My
Family 268

Societal Functions of Families 269

x Contents

Family Assessment 269
The Eco-Map 269
EXERCISE 9.2 An Eco-Map of My Family 272
The Genogram 272
EXERCISE 9.3 A Genogram of My Family 275

Aspects of Families for Workers
to Focus On 276
Verbal Communication Patterns 277
EXERCISE 9.4 Analyzing Verbal Communication Patterns in
Families 278
Nonverbal Communication Patterns 279
EXERCISE 9.5 Analyzing Nonverbal Communication Patterns
in Families 279
Family Roles of Members 280
Personal Goals and Family Goals 280
EXERCISE 9.6 Functional Roles and Problematic Roles in
Families 281
EXERCISE 9.7 Personal Goals, Family Goals, and Hidden
Agendas 282
Norms and Cultural Values 283
EXERCISE 9.8 Norms and Cultural Values in Families 284

Family Problems and Social Work Services 286
Family Problems 286
EXERCISE 9.9 Challenges Faced by My Family 287
Social Work Services 288

Summary 292
Group Exercises 292

EXERCISE A Family Counseling 292
EXERCISE B You and Your Family 293
EXERCISE C Analyzing Your Family in Terms of Group
Concepts 294

Competency Notes 295
Key Term and Concept 296

Chapter 10
Organizations, Communities,
and Groups 297
Organizations 297
The Relationship Between a Group and

an Organization 298
EXERCISE 10.1 Refuting Our Organizational Myths 298

Models of Organizations 299
The Autocratic Model 299
The Custodial Model 300
EXERCISE 10.2 Working for an Autocratic Boss 300
The Scientific Management Model 302
The Human Relations Model 302
Theory X and Theory Y 303
The Collegial Model 304
EXERCISE 10.3 Working for Theory X versus Theory Y
Managers 304

Theory Z 306
Management by Objectives 306
Total Quality Management 307
EXERCISE 10.4 Applying Concepts of Models
of Organizations 308

The Relevance of Theory X and Theory Y
for Social Workers 309

Knopf ’s Bureaucratic System Model and
Theory X 310
EXERCISE 10.5 Your Orientation toward Bureaucratic
Systems 313

Organizational Effectiveness: Structure Versus
Leadership Competency 314

Communities, Organizations, and Groups 315
EXERCISE 10.6 Enjoying and Appreciating a
Community 316
EXERCISE 10.7 Analyzing Your Home Community 318

Models of Community Practice 319
Locality Development Model 319
Social Planning Model 319
Social-Action Model 320

Building and Sustaining Community
Assets 323

Skills for Macro Practice 323
Evaluating Outcomes 325
Fundraising 325
Budgeting 326
Working with the Media 326
Conducting a Needs Assessment 326

Summary 327
Group Exercises 328

EXERCISE A Analyzing a Human Services Organization 328
EXERCISE B Understanding and Applying Models of
Organizations 329
EXERCISE C Theory X and Theory Y 329
EXERCISE D Appreciating Communities 329
EXERCISE E Analyzing a Community 329
EXERCISE F Analyzing Community Change 330
Questions 330
Competency Notes 330
Key Terms and Concepts 331

Chapter 11
Educational Groups: With
a Focus on Self-Care 332
Educational Groups 332
Define Self-Care 332
Importance of Managing Stress 333
Conceptualizing Stress 333

Contents xi

EXERCISE 11.1 My Physiological Reactions to High Levels
of Stress 334
Reactions to Stress 335
Stressors 335
EXERCISE 11.2 My Stress-Related Illnesses 336
Optimal Levels of Stress 337

Long-Term Distress 337
EXERCISE 11.3 Events and Self-Talk as
Stressors 339

Burnout 341
EXERCISE 11.4 A Time When I Burned Out 342
Structural Causes of Burnout 342
Burnout and Compassion Fatigue 344

Managing Stress 344
Goal Setting and Time Management 344
Set Goals 345
Prioritize Goals 345
List Tasks for A Goals 345
Prioritize Tasks 346
Schedule Tasks 346
EXERCISE 11.5 My High-Value Goals and
Tasks 346
Relaxation 347
Mindfulness 348
Exercise 349
Taking Care of Your Physical Self 349
Social Support Groups 349
Talking to Others 349
Positive Thinking 349
Compassion Satisfaction 350
Changing Stress-Producing Thoughts 350
Law of Attraction 351
EXERCISE 11.6 Qualities I Admire in Others 352
Changing or Adapting to Distressing
Events 352
Personal Pleasures 353

Overcoming Procrastination 353
Swiss Cheese Approach 353
EXERCISE 11.7 Ending My Procrastination 354
Other Suggestions 355
EXERCISE 11.8 Stress Management Techniques
for Me 355
EXERCISE 11.9 Developing a Self-Care Improvement
Plan 356

Summary 357
Group Exercises 357

EXERCISE A Resolving Current Stressors 357
EXERCISE B Relaxation through Meditation 358
EXERCISE C Setting High-Value Goals and Tasks 360
EXERCISE D Time Diagram 361
EXERCISE E Ending Procrastination 361

Competency Notes 362
Key Terms and Concepts 362

Chapter 12
Treatment Groups 363
Starting, Leading, and Ending Treatment

Groups 363
Preparation and Homework 363

EXERCISE 12.1 My Concerns about Participating in a
Treatment Group 365
EXERCISE 12.2 My Concerns about Co-facilitating a
Treatment Group 366

Relaxing before Starting a Session 367
Cues Upon Entering the Meeting Room 367

Strategies for Working with Hostile, Involuntary
Members 367

Seating Arrangements 368
Introduction 368
Clarifying Roles 369
Building Rapport 370

EXERCISE 12.3 The Helper Therapy Principle 370
Exploring Problems in Depth 371

EXERCISE 12.4 Using Tact in Treatment Groups 372
Exploring Alternative Solutions 373
Stages of Group Development 376
Ending a Session 379
Ending a Group 380
Co-Facilitating Treatment Groups 383
Legal Safeguards for Group Facilitators 384
Setting Professional Boundaries With

Clients 385
EXERCISE 12.5 Boundaries with Clients 386

The Therapeutic Factors: What it is That
Heals 387
EXERCISE 12.6 What Causes Positive Changes through
Counseling 389

Selecting Intervention Strategies: Evidence-
Based Practice 389

Summary 391
Group Exercises 392

EXERCISE A Developing Counseling Skills with
Role-Playing 392
EXERCISE B Group Treatment in Action 392
EXERCISE C Facilitating an Intervention Group 393
EXERCISE D Who Am I? 394
EXERCISE E The Miracle Workers 395
EXERCISE F Clients I Would Find Difficult to Work With 396
EXERCISE G Feeling Good about Ourselves 397
EXERCISE H Self-Fulfilling Prophecies 397

Competency Notes 398
Key Terms and Concepts 399

Contentsxii

Chapter 13
Treatment Groups with
Diverse and Vulnerable
Populations 400
Introduction 400
Group Work with Adolescents 401

EXERCISE 13.1 Anger Management Group 403
EXERCISE 13.2 “Own Your C.R.A.P. ” 405

Group Work with People who have an Eating
Disorder 407
EXERCISE 13.3 Body Image Group 408
EXERCISE 13.4 Fear Food Group 410
EXERCISE 13.5 Mirror Reflection Image Group 411

Group Work with Individuals Affected
by Domestic Violence 412
Group Work with Victims of Domestic Violence 413
Group Work Exercises with Victims of Domestic
Violence 414
EXERCISE 13.6 Empowerment Role-Play 414
EXERCISE 13.7 Safety Planning 416
Group Work with Children and Other Witnesses of
Domestic Violence 419
Group Work Exercises with Children and Other
Witnesses of Domestic Violence 420
EXERCISE 13.8 Feeling Identification Exercise 420
EXERCISE 13.9 Stress Relief and Deep-Breathing Exercise 422
Group Work with Offenders of Domestic Violence 424
Group Work Exercises with Offenders 425
EXERCISE 13.10 “Bail Out” Exercise 425
EXERCISE 13.11 Empathy Role-Play 428

Group Work with People Who Are
Grieving 429
Stage One: Denial 430
Stage Two: Rage and Anger 430
Stage Three: Bargaining 430
Stage Four: Depression 430
Stage Five: Acceptance 430

Westberg Model 431
Shock and Denial 431
Emotions Erupt 431
Anger 431
Illness 431
Panic 431
Guilt 431
Depression and Loneliness 431
Reentry Difficulties 432
Hope 432
Affirming Reality 432

Grief Management in Groups 432
EXERCISE 13.12 Coping with a Loss 433
EXERCISE 13.13 Recognizing That Life Is Terminal 435

EXERCISE 13.14 Achieving Closure in a Lost Relationship 439
EXERCISE 13.15 Epitaphs 440

Group Work with Older Adults 441
Introduction 441
How Group Work Can Be Used with Older Adults 442
Reality Orientation 443
Validation Therapy 443
Remotivation Therapy 443
Reminiscence Groups 443
Topic-Specific Groups 444
Health-Related Groups 444
Groups for Family Members 444
Psychotherapy Groups 444
EXERCISE 13.16 Things That Go Together 445
EXERCISE 13.17 Would You Rather? 447
EXERCISE 13.18 Balloon Pop and Reminisce 448

Summary 449
Group Exercises 450

EXERCISE A Designing a Group Treatment Exercise 450
Competency Notes 450
Key Terms and Concepts 450

Chapter 14
Termination and Evaluation
of a Group 451
Termination 451

EXERCISE 14.1 The Emotions Involved in Leaving a Group
That Is Important to You 452
Termination of a Successful Group 453
Termination of an Unsuccessful Group 453
A Member Dropping Out 454
EXERCISE 14.2 The Experience of Being Rejected 455
Transfer of a Member 456
The Leader’s Leaving 456
EXERCISE 14.3 The Experience of a Significant Person
Leaving 457

Evaluation 457
Process Evaluation 457

EXERCISE 14.4 Your Process Evaluation of a Group 458
Outcome Evaluation 459

EXERCISE 14.5 Applying Single-Subject Design to
Alleviating One of Your Bad Habits 462
EXERCISE 14.6 Applying a Satisfaction Questionnaire to a
Group You Participated In 464

Summary 466
Group Exercises 466

EXERCISE A Evaluating and Ending the Class 466
EXERCISE B Final Exam, Leading a Treatment Group 467

Competency Notes 469
Key Terms and Concepts 469

Contents xiii

Appendix 1
Group Treatment Theories
Resource Manual
(GTTRM) 471
Counseling Versus Therapy/Psychotherapy 471

MODULE 1 Rational Therapy in Groups 473
Albert Ellis 473
Theory of Rational Therapy 473

EXERCISE M1.1 Our Self-Talk Causes Our Emotions 475
Changing Unwanted Emotions 477

Meaningful Activity 478
Changing Self-Talk 478

EXERCISE M1.2 Using Meaningful Activities to Change
Unwanted Emotions 479
Changing the Distressing Event 480
EXERCISE M1.3 Changing Unwanted Emotions with a
Rational Self-Analysis 483
EXERCISE M1.4 Changing Unwanted Emotions by Changing
Events 484
Destructive Ways of Dealing with Unwanted
Emotions 484
EXERCISE M1.5 Changing Unwanted Emotions by Abusing
Alcohol, Other Drugs, or Food 485

Assessing and Changing Dysfunctional
Behavior 486

What Really Causes Psychological Changes
Via Psychotherapy? 487
EXERCISE M1.6 Our Actions Are Determined by Our
Thouughts 488
EXERCISE M1.7 The Key Therapeutic Change Agent 490

Using Rational Therapy in Groups 491
Summary 492
Group Exercises 492

EXERCISE A Changing Unwanted Emotions with Self-Talk 492
EXERCISE B Writing a Rational Self-Analysis 493
EXERCISE C Using Positive Affirmations 493
EXERCISE D Assessing and Changing Dysfunctional
Behavior 494
EXERCISE E Improving Your Self-Concept 495

Competency Notes 495

MODULE 2 Behavior Therapy in Groups 496
Types of Learning Processes 496

Operant Conditioning 496
Respondent Conditioning 497
EXERCISE M2.1 Operant Conditioning 498
EXERCISE M2.2 Pavlovian Conditioning 499
Modeling 499
EXERCISE M2.3 Modeling 500

Theory of Behavior Therapy 500
Behavior Therapy Techniques 501
Assertiveness Training 501

Nonassertive, Aggressive, and Assertive Behaviors 502
Assertiveness Training in Groups 503

Token Economies 505
EXERCISE M2.4 Becoming Assertive 506
EXERCISE M2.5 Token Economy 508

Behavioral Contracting 509
Cognitive-Behavioral Techniques 510

EXERCISE M2.6 Contingency Contracting 511
Problem Names 513
Cognitive Distortions and Thinking Errors 514

Thought Stopping and Covert Assertion 515
Diversion Techniques 515
EXERCISE M2.7 Applying Thought Stopping and Covert
Assertion 516
EXERCISE M2.8 Applying the Diversion Technique 518
Reframing 519
EXERCISE M2.9 Applying Reframing 521

Summary 523
Group Exercises 523

EXERCISE A Role-Playing Assertive Behavior 523
EXERCISE B Giving and Receiving Compliments 524
EXERCISE C Expressing Anger Constructively 525
EXERCISE D Identifying and Accepting Rights 526
EXERCISE E Behavioral Contracting 527
EXERCISE F Reframing 527

Competency Notes 527

MODULE 3 Reality Therapy in Groups 529
William Glasser 529
Choice Theory 529

Axioms of Choice Theory 531
EXERCISE M3.1 Seeking to Change Someone and Being
Controlled by Someone 532
EXERCISE M3.2 The Creativity in Our Brains 536
EXERCISE M3.3 The Effects of Nagging and
Preaching 537
EXERCISE M3.4 Improving an Unhappy Relationship 539
EXERCISE M3.5 Letting Go to Grudges 540
EXERCISE M3.6 Expressing Our Negative Emotions in Terms
of Verbs 541
EXERCISE M3.7 Changing Our Feelings and Improving
Somatic Problems 542

Principles of Reality Therapy 543
EXERCISE M3.8 A Mentally Healthy Person 545
EXERCISE M3.9 The Solving Circle 546
EXERCISE M3.10 Symptoms as a Cry for Help 547

Can Our Thoughts Alter Our Genetic
Code? 548

Using Reality Therapy in Groups 548
Summary 548

Group Exercise 549
EXERCISE A Mental Illness Debate 549

Competency Notes 549

MODULE 4 Dialectical Behavior Therapy
in Groups 551

Introduction and History 551
What Is Dialectical Behavior

Therapy? 553
DBT Groups 556

Mindfulness Skills 558
Emotional Regulation Skills 559
Distress Tolerance Skills 560
Interpersonal Effectiveness Skills 561
Skill Group Example 562
Behavior Chain Analysis 563

EXERCISE M4.1 Lemons to Lemonade 565
EXERCISE M4.2 Conducting a Behavior Analysis 567

Summary 569
Group Exercise 569

EXERCISE A Conducting Your Own DBT Skills Group 569
Competency Notes 572

Appendix 2
Answers to Group Exercises
D–F in Chapter 6 573
Notes 575
Index 585

Contentsxiv

Preface
What inspired this book? In the spring of 1983, I was teaching my first group work course
to an undergraduate social work class. Before the start of the semester, I wrote a number
of lectures about group dynamics and how groups are used in social work practice with
socialization groups, task groups, decision-making and problem-solving groups, self-help
groups, and therapy groups. At the start of the semester, I dutifully began giving these lec-
tures. Soon, however, I began sensing that the lectures were not being well received. During
the third week, a student stayed after class and said, “I’m afraid this may hurt my grade,
but most of the students in this class feel that you can’t teach a group work class with only
lectures. The only way students will learn how to run groups is by having the experience (in
class or out of class) of leading groups.” I thought about it for a few days and decided the
student was exactly right. With the students’ consent, I redesigned the whole course, with
the basic thrust being to have the students take turns in leading the class on group work
topics that we mutually agreed upon. Because at that time there was no social work group
text to facilitate this process, I attempted to write one. The first edition of this text was pub-
lished in 1985.

The basic assumption of this text is that the best way for students to learn how to run
groups is by leading groups in class. The classroom thus becomes a laboratory for students
to practice and develop their group leadership skills. This text is designed to facilitate this
laboratory approach to undergraduate and graduate group work courses.

This edition provides a number of opportunities for students to gain proficiency in
social group work skills through the inclusion of numerous “skill-building” exercises in var-
ious sections of each chapter. This book is a “worktext” that focuses on using skill-building
exercises to facilitate student development of group leadership skills.

A major focus of this edition is to provide text content and skill-building exercises that
focus on students acquiring the 9 competencies and 31 behaviors of the 2015 EPAS (Educa-
tional Policy and Accreditation Standards) of the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE).

The advantage of using the exercises from this workbook is that the exercises are
explicitly connected to the competencies and behaviors of 2015 EPAS. In addition, there
is an assessment process in this workbook that will facilitate the evaluation of students on
the extent to which they are attaining the competencies and behaviors of 2015 EPAS. The
higher a student is assessed in attaining these competencies and behaviors, the more likely
it is that the student is becoming a competent social worker. A table that identifies the chap-
ters in the text and the practice exercises in this workbook that relate to the 31 behaviors in
2015 EPAS can be found on the inside covers of the text. (Students will progress in develop-
ing the knowledge, values, skills, and cognitive and affective processes needed to become a
competent social worker by conscientiously completing these exercises.)

An additional advantage of this text is that it may be used in preparing self-study doc-
uments for accreditation—as documentation that the course in which Social Work with
Groups is being used is covering the competencies and behaviors of 2015 EPAS. Coverage is
provided with text content and with exercises.

A SELF-CARE EMPHASIS
This edition of Social Work with Groups has an emphasis on self-care; that is, the impor-
tance of social workers setting the highest priority in taking care of their own physical,
emotional, intellectual, social, and spiritual well-being. Why? It is axiomatic that if social

xvi Preface

workers do not care for themselves, their ability to care for
others will be sharply diminished or even depleted. The more
that social workers maximize their physical, emotional, intel-
lectual, social, and spiritual well-being, the more energy,
knowledge, skills, cognitive, and emotional resources they
will have in providing services to clients.

It is also axiomatic that the same intervention strategies
that social workers learn to maximize their own physical,
emotional, intellectual, social, and spiritual well-being are the
same strategies that social workers can convey to clients so
that clients can use these strategies to learn to better care for
themselves and improve their well-being!

A social worker primarily works as a “change agent”
(i.e., someone who facilitates positive changes) in individu-
als, groups, families, organizations, and communities. Why is
self-care essential in working with individuals, groups, fami-
lies, organizations, and communities? A social worker who
sets the highest priority on taking care of his or her physical,
emotional, intellectual, social, and spiritual well-being learns
an immense number of intervention strategies to improve his
or her life. These strategies are precisely the strategies that
the worker can convey to individuals, members of treatment
groups, and family members, which these clients can then use
to improve their lives.

A social worker who has excelled in self-care also has the
critical resources (physical energy, positive mind-set, emo-
tional poise, intellectual capacities, problem-solving skills,
and social skills) to effectively work with organizations and
communities to facilitate positive changes.

Self-care content and exercises to facilitate self-care for
social work students and practicing social workers is con-
tained in the following materials in this text:

Chapter 1
EXERCISE E Why I Decided to Be a Social Worker

Chapter 2
A Problem-Solving Approach
The Strengths Perspective
EXERCISE 2.6 Applying the Problem-Solving

Approach
Knowledge, Skills, and Values Needed for Social

Work Practice
EXERCISE D Social Work Value Issues
EXERCISE F Genie and the Magic Lantern

Chapter 3
Guidelines for Forming and Leading a Group
Relaxing Before You Start a Meeting
EXERCISE A Desensitizing Fears of Leading a Group
EXERCISE D Leading a Group

Chapter 4
Setting Personal and Group Goals
Personal Goals

EXERCISE 4.1 Identifying Your Personal Goals
Competition Versus Cooperation
EXERCISE 4.4 The Effects of a Competitive Group

Member
EXERCISE 4.6 Your Yielding to Group Pressure
Types of Disruptive Behavior
Handling Disruptive Behavior
Reducing the Likelihood of Disruptive Behavior
EXERCISE 4.8 Handling Disruptive Behavior of a

Group Member
EXERCISE G Confrontation and I-Messages
EXERCISE H Confronting and Being Confronted

by Others

Chapter 5
A Model of Communication
One-Way Communication
EXERCISE 5.1 The Emotional Effects of One-Way

Communication
Two-Way Communication
Perception
EXERCISE 5.2 Using Defense Mechanisms
EXERCISE 5.3 Defensive Communication
Self-Disclosure
The Johari Window
EXERCISE 5.4 Feeling Good After Self-Disclosure
EXERCISE 5.5 Johari Windows
How to Communicate Effectively
Listening Skills
Active Listening
I-Messages
EXERCISE 5.6 Learning to Use I-Messages
EXERCISE 5.7 Resolving Collisions of Values
Collisions of Values
Forms of Nonverbal Communication
EXERCISE 5.8 Interpreting Nonverbal Cues
Posture
Body Orientation
Facial Expressions
Eye Contact
Gestures
Touching
Clothing
Personal Boundaries
Territoriality
Voice
Physical Appearance
EXERCISE 5.9 Reading Nonverbal Cues
Environment
Other Nonverbal Cues
EXERCISE C Distortions in Transmitting

Information
EXERCISE E Active Listening
EXERCISE F My Nonverbal Communications
EXERCISE G Nonverbal Cues

xvii Preface

EXERCISE I Double Messages
EXERCISE J The Flat Tire
EXERCISE K Communicating While Blindfolded
EXERCISE L Giving and Receiving Feedback About

Nonverbal Communication
EXERCISE M Zones of Personal Space

Chapter 6
Guidelines for Leading Task Groups
Problem-Solving Approach

Identification and Definition
Assessment of Size and Causes
Development of Alternative Strategies
Assessment of Strategies
Selection and Implementation
Evaluation

Barriers to Effective Problem Solving
Techniques for Resolving Conflicts

Win-Lose Approach
EXERCISE 6.2 My Tolerance for Conflicts

No-Lose Problem Solving
Role Reversal

EXERCISE 6.3 Creativity Inspired by Conflict
Empathy
Inquiry
I-Messages
Disarming
Stroking

EXERCISE 6.4 Disarming and Stroking
Letting Go or Forgiving
Mediation
What If These Strategies Do Not Work?

Intergroup Conflict
EXERCISE 6.5 Resolving Your Conflicts Effectively
Group Versus Individual Decision Making

Groupthink
EXERCISE 6.6 My Groupthink Experience
EXERCISE D Creative Thinking

Chapter 7
EXERCISE 7.1 Some of My Stereotypes
Knowledge About Diverse Groups
Which Intervention Techniques Work?
Anger Management
Cultural Communication
Ethnic-Sensitive Practice
Empowerment
Strengths Perspective
Culturally Competent Practice
Cultural Humility
Principles of Feminist Therapy
EXERCISE 7.5 Feminist Intervention
Using Feminist Intervention in Groups
EXERCISE D Are You a Feminist?
EXERCISE E Double Standards

Chapter 8
Online Self-Help Groups
EXERCISE 8.2 Checking Out Online Self-Help Groups
EXERCISE 8.3 Using the American Self-Help Group

Clearinghouse
EXERCISE A Alcoholics Anonymous

Chapter 9
EXERCISE 9.1 Composition and Strengths of Family
The Eco-Map
EXERCISE 9.2 An Eco-Map of My Family
The Genogram
EXERCISE 9.3 A Genogram of My Family
EXERCISE 9.4 Analyzing Verbal Communication Pat-

terns in Families
EXERCISE 9.5 Analyzing Nonverbal Communication

Patterns in Families
EXERCISE 9.6 Functional Roles and Problematic Roles

in Families
EXERCISE 9.7 Personal Goals, Family Goals, and Hid-

den Agendas
EXERCISE 9.8 Norms and Cultural Values in Families
Family Problems
EXERCISE 9.9 Challenges Faced by My Family
EXERCISE B You and Your Family
EXERCISE C Analyzing Your Family in Terms of

Group Concepts

Chapter 10
EXERCISE 10.1 Refuting Our Organizational Myths
EXERCISE 10.2 Working for an Autocratic Boss
Theory X and Theory Y
EXERCISE 10.3 Working for Theory X Versus Theory

Y Managers
Knopf ’s Bureaucratic System Model and Theory X
EXERCISE 10.5 Your Orientation Toward Bureaucratic

Systems
EXERCISE 10.6 Enjoying and Appreciating a Com-

munity
EXERCISE C Theory X and Theory Y
EXERCISE D Appreciating Communities

Chapter 11
Define Self-Care
Importance of Managing Stress
Reactions to Stress
EXERCISE 11.1 My Physiological Reactions to High

Levels of Stress
Stressors
EXERCISE 11.2 My Stress-Related Illnesses
Optimal Levels of Stress
Long-Term Distress
EXERCISE 11.3 Events and Self-Talk as Stressors
Burnout
EXERCISE 11.4 A Time When I Burned Out

xviii Preface

Structural Causes of Burnout
Burnout and Compassion Fatigue
Managing Stress, Burnout, and Compassion Fatigue
Goal Setting and Time Management
EXERCISE 11.5 My High-Value Goals and Tasks
Relaxation
Mindfulness
Exercise
Taking Care of Your Physical Self
Social Support Groups
Talking to Others
Positive Thinking
Compassion Satisfaction
Changing Stress-Producing Thoughts
Law of Attraction
EXERCISE 11.6 Qualities I Admire in Others
Changing or Adapting to Distressing Events
Personal Pleasures
Overcoming Procrastination
Swiss Cheese Approach
EXERCISE 11-7 Ending My Procrastination
Other Suggestions
EXERCISE 11.8 Stress Management Techniques for Me
EXERCISE 11.9 Developing a Self-Care Improvement

Plan
EXERCISE A Resolving Current Stressors
EXERCISE B Relaxing Through Meditation
EXERCISE C Setting High-Value Goals and Tasks
EXERCISE D Time Diagram
EXERCISE E Ending Procrastination

Chapter 12
EXERCISE 12.1 My Concerns About Participating in a

Treatment Group
EXERCISE 12.2 My Concerns About Co-facilitating a

Treatment Group
Strategies for Working with Hostile, Involuntary

Members
Building Rapport
EXERCISE 12.3 The Helper Therapy Principle
Exploring Problems in Depth
Exploring Alternative Solutions
Setting Professional Boundaries with Clients
EXERCISE 12.5 Boundaries with Clients
The Therapeutic Factors: What It Is That Heals
EXERCISE 12.6 What Causes Positive Changes

Through Counseling?
EXERCISE D Who Am I?
EXERCISE E The Miracle Workers
EXERCISE F Clients I Would Find Difficult to Work

With
EXERCISE G Feeling Good About Ourselves
EXERCISE H Self-Fulfilling Prophecies

Chapter 13
EXERCISE 13.1 Anger Management Group
EXERCISE 13.2 “Own Your C.R.A.P”
EXERCISE 13.3 Body Image Group
EXERCISE 13.6 Empowerment Role-Play
EXERCISE 13.7 Safety Planning
Grief Management in Groups
EXERCISE 13.12 Coping with a Loss
EXERCISE 13.13 Recognizing Life Is Terminal
EXERCISE 13.14 Achieving Closure in a Lost

Relationship
EXERCISE 13.15 Epitaphs

Chapter 14
EXERCISE 14.1 The Emotions Involved in Leaving a

Group That Is Important to You
EXERCISE 14.2 The Experience of Being Rejected
EXERCISE 14.3 The Experience of a Significant Person

Leaving
EXERCISE 14.5 Applying Single-Subject Design to

Alleviating One of Your Bad Habits

Module 1
Theory of Rational Therapy
EXERCISE M1.1 Our Self-Talk Causes Our Emotions
Changing Unwanted Emotions
EXERCISE M1.2 Using Meaningful Activities to

Change Unwanted Emotions
EXERCISE M1.3 Changing Unwanted Emotions with a

Rational Self-Analysis
EXERCISE M1.4 Changing Unwanted Emotions by

Changing Events
EXERCISE M1.5 Changing Unwanted Emotions by

Abusing Alcohol, Other Drugs, or Food
Assessing and Changing Dysfunctional Behavior
What Really Causes Psychological Changes via Psycho-

therapy?
EXERCISE M1.6 Our Actions Are Determined by Our

Thoughts
EXERCISE M1.7 The Key Therapeutic Change Agent
EXERCISE A Changing Unwanted Emotions with

Self-Talk
EXERCISE B Writing a Rational Self-Analysis
EXERCISE C Using Positive Affirmations
EXERCISE D Assessing and Changing Dysfunctional

Behavior
EXERCISE E Improving Your Self-Concept

Module 2
Types of Learning Processes
EXERCISE M2.1 Operant Conditioning
EXERCISE M2.2 Pavlovian Conditioning
EXERCISE M2.3 Modeling

xix Preface

Theory of Behavior Therapy
Assertiveness Training
Token Economies
EXERCISE M2.4 Becoming Assertive
EXERCISE M2.5 Token Economy
Behavioral Contracting
Cognitive Behavior Techniques
EXERCISE M2.6 Contingency Contracting
EXERCISE M2.7 Applying Thought Stopping and

Covert Assertion
EXERCISE M2.8 Applying the Diversion Technique
EXERCISE M2.9 Applying Reframing
EXERCISE A Role-Playing Assertive Behavior
EXERCISE B Giving and Receiving Compliments
EXERCISE C Expressing Anger Constructively
EXERCISE D Identifying and Accepting Personal

Rights
EXERCISE E Behavioral Contracting
EXERCISE F Reframing

Module 3
Choice Theory
EXERCISE M3.1 Seeking to Change Someone and

Being Controlled by Someone
EXERCISE M3.2 The Creativity in Our Brains
EXERCISE M3.3 The Effects of Nagging and Preaching
EXERCISE M3.4 Improving an Unhappy Relationship
EXERCISE M3.5 Letting Go of Grudges
EXERCISE M3.6 Expressing Our Negative Emotions in

Terms of Verbs
EXERCISE M3.7 Changing Our Feelings and Improv-

ing Somatic Problems
Principles of Reality Therapy
EXERCISE M3.8 A Mentally Healthy Person
EXERCISE M3.9 The Solving Circle
EXERCISE M3.10 Symptoms as a Cry for Help
Can Our Thoughts Alter Our Genetic Code?

Module 4
Mindfulness Skills

Moment to Pause
Wise Mind
One Mind
Turtling
Focused Breathing
Effectiveness
Radical Acceptance
Nonjudgmental
Willingness
Middle Path

Emotional Regulation Skills
Lemons to Lemonade
Opposite Emotion

Ride the Wave
Please Master

Distress Tolerance Skills
Self-Soothe First Aid Kit
Crisis Survival Network
Half-Smile
Dear Man
Give
Making Repairs
Broken Record

Skill Group Example: Lemons to Lemonade Skill
Group

Behavior Chain Analysis
Vulnerability

EXERCISE M4.1 Lemons to Lemonade
Precipitating Event
Thoughts, Feelings, and Actions
Consequences
Alternative Strategies and Vulnerability Reduction

Behavior Chain Analysis Example
EXERCISE M4.2 Conducting a Behavior Analysis

This text obviously has considerable theories on how
social workers can improve the lives of the clients they serve.
In addition, there are a plethora of exercises that social work
students can utilize to learn how to apply these theories.
Equally important is the fact that these theories and exercises
can and should be used by social work students to maximize
their physical, emotional, intellectual, social, and spiritual
well-being.

PLAN OF THE BOOK
Each chapter is designed according to the following format:

1. The learning objectives of the chapter are stated.
2. Theoretical material is presented on how the learning

objectives can be achieved. If the learning objective is to
learn how to handle disruptive members of a group, for
example, the chapter describes appropriate strategies.

3. Several “skill-building” exercises are then interspersed
throughout each chapter and at the end of each chapter.
These exercises give students practice in acquiring the
skills described in the chapter.

At the end of the book is a Group Treatment Theories
Resource Manual (GTTRM). To highlight the uniqueness of
the GTTRM, material is presented in modules rather than
chapters. This GTTRM presents prominent theories of coun-
seling that are widely used by social workers in working with
treatment groups.

USING THE BOOK
After the instructor covers the introductory material con-
tained in the first chapter, it is suggested that students (either

xx Preface

individually or in small groups) take turns preparing and con-
ducting future class sessions by summarizing the theoretical
material in the chapters and leading the class in related exer-
cises. (Students may also be given the opportunity to select a
topic not covered in the text.)

The skill-building exercises in this text may be used in a
variety of ways. The assigned leader (who may be the instruc-
tor, a student, or a small group of students) for a chapter
may use the exercises in the following ways: (1) The assigned
leader may request that the other students complete certain
exercises as a homework assignment prior to the next class
period; the exercises are then reviewed when the class next
meets. (2) The assigned leader may have the other students
complete one or more exercises during the class. (3) The

instructor may assign certain exercises as written homework
to be submitted for evaluation. (4) The instructor may have
each student complete several exercises and then place them
in a portfolio, which the instructor may periodically review
for evaluation purposes.

Students should make their presentations stimulating,
interesting, and educational by speaking extemporaneously
rather than reading and by adapting chapter topics using per-
sonal observations or research. Students should also prepare
and distribute handouts that summarize the key points of
their presentations and should move around the classroom
to maintain and increase the interest of the class. The use of
technological resources, such as Microsoft PowerPoint, is also
suggested.

xxi

Charles H. Zastrow, MSW, PhD, is Professor Emeritus in Social Work at the University of
Wisconsin-Whitewater. He chaired the Social Work Department for six years at this cam-
pus. He has also been the Assistant Director and Professor in the Social Work Program at
George Williams College of Aurora University at Williams Bay, Wisconsin. He has worked
as a practitioner in a variety of public and private social welfare agencies and has chaired
28 social work accreditation site visit teams for the Council on Social Work Education
(CSWE).

He was a member of the Commission on Accreditation of CSWE for six years. He is a
member of the International Association for Social Work with Groups, the National Asso-
ciation of Social Workers, the Council on Social Work Education, and the NASW Register
of Clinical Social Workers. He is licensed as a clinical social worker in Wisconsin. In addi-
tion to Social Work with Groups, he has written several other books, including the following
textbooks: Introduction to Social Work and Social Welfare (12th ed.), Generalist Social Work
Practice (11th ed.), and Understanding Human Behavior and Social Environment (10th ed.)
(with Dr. Karen Kirst-Ashman).

Sarah L. Hessenauer, BSW, MSW, PhD, is an associate professor in social work at the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin-Whitewater. She has been in the department for 10 years and is chair
of the department. She earned her BSW degree in 1990 from the University of Wisconsin-
Whitewater, her MSW in 1991 from UW-Milwaukee, and her PhD in 2011 from Loyola
University of Chicago. She is a certified licensed clinical social worker in the state of Wis-
consin. She has worked as a practitioner and administrator in a variety of mental health
and addictions agencies. She is a Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) accreditation
site visitor. She is a current member of NASW, BPD, and CSWE. She has authored several
articles and is a reviewer for several social work journals.

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

Katherine Drechsler, MSW
Lecturer
University of Wisconsin–Whitewater
Doctoral Student in Social Work
George Williams College of Aurora

University
Jacob Dunn, MSW, LCSW

Associate Lecturer
University of Wisconsin–Madison
Social Worker, Stoughton Hospital

Geriatric Psychiatry Unit
Stoughton, WI

Rachel Dunn, MSW, LCSW
Associate Lecturer
University of Wisconsin–Madison
Psychotherapist, Crossroads Counseling
Janesville, WI

Craig Mead, MSW, LSW
Licensed Social Worker at Presence

St. Mary and Elizabeth Medical
Center

Chicago, IL

Michael Wallace, MSSW, LCSW
Clinical Social Worker and Lecturer

(Retired)
Social Work Department
University of Wisconsin–Whitewater

Mary R. Weeden, LCSW, PhD
Clinical Therapist for Eating Disorders
Instructor, University of Wisconsin–

Oshkosh

About the Authors

LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
Each group develops a unique
character or personality
because of the principles of
group dynamics. This chapter
will help prepare students to:

LO 1
Understand the history of
social group work.

LO 2
Identify the primary types of
groups in social work.

LO 3
Understand four models of
group development over
time.

LO 4
Describe the differences
between reference groups
and membership groups.

LO 5
Comprehend guidelines on
how to conduct classroom
exercises.

1
Groups: Types and
Stages of Development
Every social service agency uses groups, and every practicing social worker is involved in a variety of groups. Social work with groups is practiced in adoption agencies,
correctional settings, halfway houses, substance abuse treatment centers, physical reha-
bilitation centers, family service agencies, private psychotherapy clinics, mental hospitals,
nursing homes, community centers, public schools, and many other social service settings.
To effectively serve clients in human service systems today, social workers in generalist
practice positions must be trained in group methods. Often, social workers serve as leaders
and participants in myriad groups requiring skills ranging from simple to complex. The
beginning social worker is likely to be surprised at the diverse groups in existence and
excited by the challenge of practicing social work in many different settings.

LO 1 Understand the History
of Social Group Work

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GROUP WORK
The roots of group social work began in the settlement houses, the Young
Men’s and Young Women’s Christian Associations (YMCAs and YWCAs),
Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts, and Jewish centers of the 1800s.1 These agen-
cies focused on providing group programs for people considered “normal.”
Recipients of early group services came for recreation, informal education,
friendship, and social action. Euster notes that these recipients “learned to
cooperate and get along with others socially; they enriched themselves through
new knowledge, skills, and interests, and the overall state of society was bettered
through responsible involvement in community problems.”2

Settlement Houses
The first settlement house, Toynbee Hall, was established in London in 1884;
many others were soon formed in large U.S. cities.3

Many of the early settlement-house workers were daughters of ministers. Usu-
ally from middle- and upper-class families, they would live in a poor neighbor-
hood so they could experience the harsh realities of poverty. Using the missionary
approach of teaching residents how to live moral lives and improve their circum-
stances, early settlement workers sought to improve housing, health, and living
conditions; find jobs for workers; teach English, hygiene, and occupational skills;
and improve living conditions through neighborhood cooperative efforts. The
techniques settlement houses used to effect change are now called social group
work, social action, and community organization.

Settlement houses not only emphasized “environmental reform,” but they
also “continued to struggle to teach the poor the prevailing middle-class values

CHAPTER 1: Groups: Types and Stages of Development 2

of work, thrift, and abstinence as the keys to success.”4 In addition to dealing with local
problems through local action, settlement houses played important roles in drafting legisla-
tion and organizing to influence social policy and legislation.

The most noted leader in the settlement-house movement was Jane Addams of Hull
House in Chicago. She was born in 1860 in Cedarville, Illinois, the daughter of parents who
owned a successful flour mill and wood mill.5 After graduating from Rockford Seminary in
Rockford, Illinois, she attended medical school briefly but was forced to leave due to illness.
She then traveled for a few years in Europe, perplexed as to what her life work should be.
At the age of 25, she joined the Presbyterian Church, which helped her find a focus for her
life: religion, humanitarianism, and serving the poor. (She later joined the Congregational
Church, now known as the United Church of Christ.) Addams heard about the establishment
of Toynbee Hall in England and returned to Europe to study the approach. The staff of college
students and graduates, mainly from Oxford, lived in the slums of London to learn conditions
firsthand and to improve life there with their own personal resources, including financial ones.

Jane Addams returned to the United States and rented a two-story house, later named
Hull House, in an impoverished neighborhood in Chicago. With a few friends, Addams initi-
ated a variety of group and individual activities for the community. Group activities included
a literature reading group for young women; a kindergarten; and groups that focused on
social relationships, sports, music, painting, art, and discussion of current affairs. Hull House
also provided services to individuals who needed immediate help, such as food, shelter, and
information on and referral for other services. A Hull House Social Science Club studied
social problems in a scientific manner and then became involved in social action efforts to
improve living conditions. This group worked successfully for passage of Illinois legislation
to prevent the employment of children in sweatshops. Addams also became interested in the
various ethnic groups in the neighborhood. She was fairly successful in bringing the various
nationalities together at Hull House, where they could interact and exchange cultural values.

The success of Hull House served as a model for the establishment of settlement houses
in other areas of Chicago and many other large cities in the United States. Settlement-house
leaders believed that by changing neighborhoods, they could improve communities, and by
altering communities, they could develop a better society. For her extraordinary contribu-
tions, Jane Addams received the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1931.

Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA)
The founder of the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA), George Williams,6 was born
and reared on a small farm in England. He stopped attending school at the age of 13 to work
on his father’s farm, but at 14, he became an apprentice to a draper (a manufacturer and
dealer of cloth and woolen materials) and learned the trade. He grew up in a religious envi-
ronment and joined the Congregational Church at the age of 16. At 20, he moved to London
and worked for another drapery firm. Like Williams, the business owner, George Hitchcock,
was deeply religious and allowed his new employee to organize prayer meetings at work.

The size of the prayer circle gradually grew, and the meetings featured Bible reading as well
as prayers. The success of this group inspired Williams and his associates to organize similar
groups at other drapers’ establishments. The prayer circle Williams formed with 12 fellow
employees marked the beginning of YMCAs. In 1844, the resulting prayer circles at 14 businesses
formed an association called the Young Men’s Christian Association. Each group conducted
weekly religious services that included prayer, Bible readings, and discussions of spiritual topics.

The YMCA soon began to expand its activities. Prominent speakers from various fields
of public and scholarly life addressed its members. An office was selected, and Protestant
clergy in France, Holland, and other countries were persuaded to form YMCAs. Gradually,
the programs were expanded to meet the unique needs of the communities in which the
YMCAs were located.

In 1851, Thomas V. Sullivan, a retired mariner, picked up a religious weekly in Boston
and read about the YMCA movement in London.7 Sullivan gathered a few friends and
established the first YMCA in the United States. Similar to the London association, the
U.S. movement spread quickly to other communities. In only 7 years, YMCAs were serving
communities throughout the United States.

3 Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work

The U.S. YMCA had many firsts. It was the first organization to aid troops during
wartime in the field and in prison camps. It pioneered community sports and athletics,
invented volleyball and basketball, and taught water safety and swimming. It devised an
international program of social service similar to that of the Peace Corps. It originated group
recreational camping, developed night schools and adult education, initiated widespread
nondenominational Christian work for college students, and reached out to assist foreign
students. From an origin that involved a narrowly focused religious objective, YMCAs have
expanded their objectives in a variety of directions. The success of YMCAs helped spur the
first Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA), formed in Boston in 1866.8

LO 2 Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work

TYPES OF GROUPS
A variety of groups occur in social work—social conversation, recreation skill building,
educational, task, problem solving and decision making, focus, self-help, socialization,
treatment, and sensitivity and encounter training. According to Johnson and Johnson, a
group may be defined as two or more individuals in face-to-face interaction, each aware
of positive interdependence as they strive to achieve mutual goals, each aware of his or her
membership in the group, and each aware of the others who belong to the group.9

Social Conversation
Social conversation is often employed to determine what kind of relationship might develop
with people we do not know very well. Because talk is often loose and tends to drift aimlessly,
there is usually no formal agenda for social conversations. If the topic of conversation is dull,
the subject can simply be changed. Although individuals may have a goal (perhaps only to
establish an acquaintanceship), such goals need not become the agenda for the entire group.
In social work, social conversation with other professionals is frequent, but groups involving
clients generally have objectives other than conversation, such as resolving personal problems.

Recreation/Skill Building
Recreational groups may be categorized as informal recreational groups or skill-building
recreational groups.

A recreational group service agency (such as the YMCA, YWCA, or neighborhood
center) may offer little more than physical space and the use of some equipment to
provide activities for enjoyment and exercise. Often activities such as playground games
and informal athletics are spontaneous, and the groups are practically leaderless. Some
agencies claim that recreation and interaction with others help build character and
prevent delinquency among youths by providing an alternative to street life.

In contrast to informal recreational groups, a skill-building recreational group has an
increased focus on tasks and is guided by an adviser, coach, or instructor. The objective is to
improve a set of skills in an enjoyable way. Examples of activities include arts and crafts and
sports such as golf, basketball, and swimming, which may develop into competitive team
sports with leagues. These groups are frequently led by professionals with recreational train-
ing rather than social work training, and the agencies involved include the YMCA, YWCA,
Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, neighborhood centers, and school recreational departments.

Education
Although the topics covered vary widely, all educational groups teach specialized skills
and knowledge, such as classes on childrearing, stress management, parenting, English
as a foreign language, and assertiveness training. Orientations offered by social service
organizations to train volunteers fall into this category as well. Educational groups usually
have a classroom atmosphere, involving considerable group interaction and discussion; a
professional person with expertise in the area, often a social worker, assumes the role of
teacher.

CHAPTER 1: Groups: Types and Stages of Development 4

Task
Task groups are formed to achieve a specific set of tasks or objectives. The following examples
are types of task groups that social workers are apt to interact with or become involved in. A
board of directors is an administrative group charged with responsibility for setting the pol-
icy governing agency programs. A task force is a group established for a special purpose and

A Problem-Solving and Decision-Making Group: Family Group Conferencing

The family group conferencing approach with abused or
neglected children originated in New Zealand. The approach
has now been adopted in many other countries, including in
the United States.

When evidence of child abuse by child protective services
or the police has been documented, some child protective
services agencies are now offering the parents of the affected
children the option of using the family group conferencing
approach to attempt to improve the parenting and end future
abuse. The process is first explained to the parents. If the par-
ents agree to involve their extended kinship network in plan-
ning, the process is then implemented.

The family decision-making conference is facilitated by a
professional person (often associated with child protective
services). The professional person is usually called the “family
group coordinator.” Three characteristics are central to family
group conferencing:
1. Family is widely defined to include extended family

members, as well as other people who are significant to
the family.

2. The family is given the opportunity to prepare the plan.
3. The professionals involved with the family must agree to

the plan unless it is thought to place the child at risk.
The coordinator prepares and plans for the first meeting of

the extended family. Such planning may take weeks.
Downs, Moore, McFadden, and Costin describe the initial

planning process:

This involves working with the family; identifying con-
cerned parties and members of the extended kinship net-
work; clarifying their roles and inviting them to a family
group meeting; establishing the location, time, and other
logistics; and managing other unresolved issues. At the
meeting the coordinator welcomes and introduces par-
ticipants in a culturally appropriate manner, establishes
the purpose of the meeting, and helps participants reach
agreement about roles, goals, and ground rules. Next,
information is shared with the family, which may involve
the child protection workers and other relevant profession-
als such as a doctor or teacher involved with the child.a

In the New Zealand model, the coordinator and other profes-
sional withdraw from the meeting in the next stage to allow
the family privacy for their deliberations. (Some programs in
the United States and other countries allow the coordinator

to remain in the meeting.) The kinship network makes plans
to respond to the issues that are raised, including developing
a plan for the safety and the care of the child. The coordina-
tor and/or protective services retain the right to veto a family
plan if they believe the child will not be protected. (In reality, a
veto is rarely used.) Several meetings over several days may be
necessary to develop the family plan.

Downs and colleagues summarize the challenges faced by
social workers with this approach:

Working with family group decision making requires a
new approach to family-centered practice. The social
worker must expand his or her ideas about the family to
recognize the strength and centrality of the extended
kinship network, particularly in communities of color. Use
of the strengths perspective is critical. The worker must
understand the greater investment of kin in the well-being
of the child and should also understand that, even when
parts of the kinship system may seem to be compromised
or dysfunctional, the healthier kinfolk can assess and deal
with the problem. One of the greatest challenges for the
social worker is incorporating the sharing of power or
returning of power to the kinship network. Many social
workers trained as family therapists or child welfare work-
ers have assumed a power role and may find it difficult to
relinquish a sense of control.b

There are several advantages of family group conferencing. It
facilitates getting the extended family involved in meeting the
needs of the abused/neglected child or children and in meet-
ing the needs of their parents. It reduces government inter-
vention in people’s lives. It recognizes the strengths of kinship
networks to provide assistance to at-risk families. It reduces
the number of children placed in foster homes. (Frequently
with this approach one or more extended family members
temporarily take in the child, giving the parents an opportu-
nity to receive whatever they need to become more stable and
to learn better parenting skills.)

Family group conferencing has also been adapted to
respond to other family issues, such as families with an adjudi-
cated delinquent.

a. Downs, S. W., Moore, E., McFadden, E. J., & Costin, L. B. (2000). Child
welfare and family services. (6th ed., p. 295). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

b. Ibid., p. 295.

5 Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work

is usually disbanded after the task is completed. A committee of an agency or organization
is a group that is formed to deal with specific tasks or matters. An ad hoc committee, like a
task force, is set up for one purpose and usually ceases functioning after completion of its task.

Problem Solving and Decision Making
Both providers and consumers of social services may become involved in groups concerned
with problem solving and decision making. (There is considerable overlap between task
groups and these groups; in fact, problem-solving and decision-making groups can be con-
sidered a subcategory of task groups.)

Social service providers use group meetings for objectives such as developing a treat-
ment plan for a client or a group of clients, or deciding how best to allocate scarce resources.
Potential consumers of services may form a group to meet a current community need. Data
on the need may be gathered, and the group may be used as a vehicle, either to develop a
program or to influence existing agencies to provide services. Social workers may function
as stimulators and organizers of these group efforts.

In problem-solving and decision-making groups, each participant normally has
some interest or stake in the process and stands to gain or lose personally by the outcome.
Usually, there is a formal leader, and other leaders sometimes emerge during the process.

Focus
Focus groups are closely related to task groups and problem-solving and decision-making
groups. They may be formed for a variety of purposes, including (1) to identify needs or
issues, (2) to generate proposals that resolve an identified issue, and (3) to test reactions to
alternative approaches to an issue. A focus group is a group convened to discuss a specific
issue or single topic, often with the aid of questionnaires, and a moderator who actively keeps
the conversation oriented to that topic. Such groups are often established to acquire informa-
tion and generate ideas that would not be as accessible through individual interviews.10

Two examples of a focus group are a nominal group (described in Chapter 4) and a
brainstorming session (described in Chapter 6).

A representative group is another version of a focus group. Its strength is that its mem-
bers have been selected specifically to represent different perspectives and points of view in
a community. At best, the representative group is a focus group that reflects the cleavages in
the community and seeks to bring diverse views to the table; at worst, it is a front group for
people who seek to make the community think it has been involved.

Self-Help and Mutual Aid
Self-help groups are increasingly popular and often successful in helping individuals over-
come social or personal problems. Katz and Bender provide a comprehensive definition:

Self-help groups are voluntary, small group structures . . . usually formed by peers who have
come together for mutual assistance in satisfying a common need, overcoming a common
handicap or life-disrupting problem, and bringing about desired social and/or personal
change. The initiators and members of such groups perceive that their needs are not, or
cannot be, met by or through existing social institutions. . . . They often provide material
assistance as well as emotional support, they are frequently “cause”-oriented, and promul-
gate an ideology or [set of ] values through which members may attain an enhanced sense
of personal identity.11

Alcoholics Anonymous, developed by two recovering alcoholics, was the first self-help
group to demonstrate substantial success. In Self-Help Organizations and Professional Prac-
tice, Powell describes numerous self-help groups that are now active.12

Closely related to self-help groups are mutual-aid groups, and the terms are some-
times interchangeable. Mutual-aid groups are informal or formal associations of people
who share certain problems and meet regularly in small groups with professional leaders
to provide emotional support, information, assistance in problem solving, and other help
for each other.

CHAPTER 1: Groups: Types and Stages of Development 6

A Self-Help Group: Parents Anonymous

Parents Anonymous (PA), a national self-help organization
for parents who have abused or neglected their children, was
established in 1970 by Jolly K. in California. For 4 years before
forming the group, Jolly had struggled with an uncontrol-
lable urge to severely punish her daughter. One afternoon she
attempted to strangle the child. Desperate, she sought help
from a local child-guidance clinic and was placed in therapy.
When asked by her therapist what she could do about her
problem, Jolly developed an idea. As she explained, “If alco-
holics could stop drinking by getting together, and gamblers
could stop gambling, maybe the same principle would work
for [child] abusers, too.” With her therapist’s encouragement
she formed “Mothers Anonymous” in 1970 and organized a
few chapters in California. Nearly every major city in the United
States and Canada now has a chapter, and the name has been
changed to Parents Anonymous because fathers who abuse
their children are also eligible to join.

PA is a crisis intervention program that offers two main
forms of help: a weekly group meeting and personal and
telephone contact. Members share experiences and feelings
during weekly meetings and learn to better control their emo-
tions. During periods of crisis, personal and telephone contact
is especially important, particularly when a member feels a
nearly uncontrollable desire to take anger or frustration out
on a child. Parents may be referred to PA by a social agency
(including protective services) or be self-referred as parents
who recognize that they need help.

Cassie Starkweather and S. Michael Turner describe why
abusive parents would rather participate in a self-help group
than receive professional counseling:

It has been our experience that most [abusive] parents
judge themselves more harshly than other, more objective
people tend to judge them. The fear of losing their children
frequently diminishes with reassurance from other mem-
bers that they are not the monsters they think they are.

Generally speaking, PA members are so afraid they are
going to be judged by others as harshly as they judge
themselves that they are afraid to go out and seek help.
Frequently our members express fears of dealing with a
professional person, seeing differences in education, sex,

or social status as basic differences that would prevent
easy communication or mutual understanding.

Members express feelings of gratification at finding
that other parents are “in the same boat.” They contrast
this with their feelings about professionals who, they
often assume, have not taken out the time from their
training and current job: responsibilities to raise families
of their own.a

PA emphasizes honesty and directness, as parents who are
prone to abuse their children have learned to hide this problem
because society finds it difficult to acknowledge. In contrast to
society’s tendency to deny the problem, the goal of PA is to help
parents admit that they are abusive. The term abuse is used lib-
erally at meetings, and this insistence on frankness has a healthy
effect on members. Abusive parents are relieved because they
have finally found a group of people able to accept them as
they are. Furthermore, only when they are able to admit they
are abusive can they begin to find ways to heal themselves.

During meetings, parents are expected to actually admit to
beating their child or engaging in other forms of abuse, and
the members challenge each other to find ways to curb these
activities. Members share constructive approaches to anger
and other abuse-precipitating emotions and help each other
develop specific plans for dealing with situations that have
resulted in abusive episodes. Members learn to recognize
danger signs and to take action to avoid abuse.

Leadership is provided by a group member selected by other
members. The leader, called a chairperson, is normally assisted by
a professional sponsor who serves as resource and back-up per-
son to the chair and the group. The social worker who assumes
the role of sponsor must be prepared to perform a variety of func-
tions, including teacher-trainer, broker of community services
needed by parents, advocate, consultant, and counselor.b

SOURCE: Adapted from Introduction to Social Work and Social
Welfare, 8th ed., by Zastrow © 2004. Reprinted with permission
of Brooks/Cole.

a. Starkweather, C. L., & Turner, S. M. (1975). Parents Anonymous:
Reflections on the development of a self-help group. In N. C. Ebel-
ing & D. A. Hill (Eds.), Child abuse: Intervention and treatment
(p. 151). Acton, MA: Publishing Sciences Group.

b. Check the Parents Anonymous website at http://parentsanonymous.org.

Many self-help groups use individual confession and testimony techniques. Each
member explains his or her problem and recounts related experiences and plans for han-
dling the problem. When a member encounters a crisis (for example, an abusive parent
having an urge to abuse a child), he or she is encouraged to call another group member, who
helps the person cope. Having experienced the misery and consequences of the problem,
group members are highly dedicated to helping themselves and then fellow sufferers. The

7 Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work

participants also benefit from the “helper therapy” principle; that is, the helper gains psy-
chological rewards.13 Helping others makes a person feel worthwhile, enabling the person
to put his or her own problems into perspective.

Most self-help groups are “direct service” in that they help members with individual
problems. Other self-help groups work on community-wide issues and tend to be more
social action oriented. Some direct service self-help groups attempt to change legislation
and policy in public and private institutions. Others (parents of children with a cognitive
disability, for example) also raise funds and operate community programs. However, many
people with personal problems use self-help groups in the same way others use social agen-
cies. An additional advantage of self-help groups is that they generally operate with a mini-
mal budget. (For further discussion, see Chapter 8.)

Socialization
The primary objective of most socialization groups is to develop attitudes and behaviors
in group members that are more socially acceptable.14 Developing social skills, increasing
self-confidence, and planning for the future are other focuses. Leadership roles in social-
ization groups are frequently filled by social workers who work with groups for predelin-
quent youths to curb delinquency; youths of diverse racial backgrounds to reduce racial
tensions; and pregnant, unmarried young females to help them make plans for the future.
Older residents in nursing homes are often remotivated by socialization groups and become

A Socialization Group: A Group at a Runaway Center

New Horizons, located in an older home in a large Midwestern
city, is a private, temporary shelter where youths on the run can
stay for 2 weeks. The facility is licensed to house up to eight
youths; however, state law requires that parents be contacted
and parental permission received before New Horizons can
provide shelter overnight. Services include temporary shelter,
individual and family counseling, and a 24-hour hotline for
youths in crisis. Because the average stay at New Horizons is
9 days, the population is continually changing. During their
stay, youths (and often their parents) receive intensive counsel-
ing, which focuses on reducing conflicts between the youths
and their parents and on helping them make future living plans.
The 2-week limit conveys the importance to residents and their
families of resolving the conflicts that keep them apart.

Every evening at 7 p.m., a group meeting allows residents
to express their satisfactions and dissatisfactions with the
facilities and program at New Horizons. All the residents and
the two or three staff members on duty are expected to attend.
The meetings are convened and led by the staff, most of whom
are social workers. Sometimes, the group becomes primarily
a “gripe” session, but the staff makes conscientious efforts to
improve or change situations involving legitimate gripes. For
example, a youth may indicate that the past few days have
been “boring,” and staff and residents then jointly plan activi-
ties for the next few days.

Interaction problems that arise between residents, and
between staff and residents, are also handled during a group
session. A resident may be preventing others from sleeping;

some residents may refuse to share in domestic tasks; there
may be squabbles about which TV program to watch;
some residents may be overly aggressive. Because most
of the youths face a variety of crises associated with being on
the run, many are anxious and under stress. In such an emo-
tional climate, interaction problems are certain to arise. Staff
members are sometimes intensely questioned about their
actions, decisions, and policies. For example, one of the
policies at New Horizons is that each resident must agree
not to use alcohol or narcotic drugs while at the shelter.
The penalty is expulsion. Occasionally, few youths use some
drugs, are caught, and are expelled. Removing a youth from
this facility has an immense impact on the other residents,
and at the following meetings staff members are expected to
clarify and explain such decisions.

The staff also presents material on topics requested by
residents during meetings. Subjects often covered include
sex; drugs; homosexuality; physical and sexual abuse (a fair
number of residents are abused by family members); avoid-
ing rape; handling anger, depression, and other unwanted
emotions; legal rights of youths on the run; being more
assertive; explaining running away to relatives and friends; and
human services available to youths in the community. During
such presentations, considerable discussion with residents is
encouraged and generally occurs.

The final objective of the group is to convey information
about planned daily activities and changes in the overall pro-
gram at New Horizons.

CHAPTER 1: Groups: Types and Stages of Development 8

involved in various activities. Teenagers at correctional schools are helped to make plans for
returning to their home community. Leadership of all the groups mentioned in this section
requires considerable skills and knowledge to help the group to foster individual growth
and change.

Treatment
Treatment groups are generally composed of members with severe emotional, behavioral, and
personal problems. Leaders of such groups must have superb counseling and group leader-
ship skills, including the ability to accurately perceive the core of each member’s response
to what is being communicated. Group leaders must also have the personal capacities to
develop and maintain a constructive atmosphere within a group. As in one-on-one counsel-
ing, the goal of treatment groups is to have members explore their problems in depth and then
develop strategies for resolving them. Three treatment approaches (reality therapy, behavior
therapy, and rational therapy) are described in the Group Treatment Theories Resource Man-
ual (located at the end of the text). These three treatment approaches can be used to change
dysfunctional behaviors and unwanted emotions of group members. There are a variety of
treatment groups. (See “Common Types of Treatment Groups.”)

COMMON TYPES OF TREATMENT GROUPS*
Social workers are likely to encounter treatment groups in a wide variety of settings, such
as outpatient mental health clinics, community-based social service agencies, inpatient
psychiatric units, intensive outpatient programs, substance abuse programs, residential
programs, domestic violence programs, special education programs, therapeutic day
schools, veterans’ programs, day treatment programs, correctional institutions, juvenile
justice programs, and other institutional programs. Most treatment groups in these settings
are based upon a recovery model emphasizing that clients can achieve long-term recov-
ery from serious mental illness, developmental and social problems, and behavioral health
issues. This recovery is facilitated and achieved through skill building and psychosocial
rehabilitation, which improves clients’ abilities to self-manage symptoms and problems in
their current environment. These groups are often called psychosocial rehabilitation or
community support groups and focus on changing behavior, skill building, and increasing
natural supports. Groups are frequently structured using cognitive and behavioral therapy
approaches (see modules at the end of the text), and facilitators are often given substantial
latitude as to the content and structure of specific group sessions. Next we’ll look at some of
the more common treatment groups social workers may encounter and be asked to facili-
tate. The types of groups an agency provides and the group names used will vary depending
on agency, mission, population, and client needs.

Psychoeducational Groups
Psychoeducational groups are becoming increasingly common in many community-based
agencies and institutional settings. These groups are designed to educate and empower
clients, families, caregivers, and support systems to be able to better manage a client’s psy-
chiatric symptoms, mental illness, or behavioral health problems. They often center on a
specific diagnosis, such as depression, anxiety, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD), bipolar disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), substance dependence, or
obsessive-compulsive disorder. The primary goal is to educate and improve understanding
about common symptoms; recognize early warning signs; improve symptom management;
and enhance relapse prevention, effective intervention, coping skills, and effective supports.
An additional goal is to improve insight, which enhances recovery, reduces inpatient hospi-
talizations, and improves family stress levels and well-being. Sometimes psychoeducational
groups are specifically geared toward family members and client support systems. Often
these are facilitated self-help groups that emphasize peer support and encouragement.

* This material was written by Craig Mead, MSW, LSW, Licensed Social Worker at Presence St. Mary and
Elizabeth Medical Center, Chicago, IL.

9 Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work

For example, an ADHD parents group would focus on educating parents on symptoms to
improve their ability to distinguish true symptoms from other oppositional, defiant, or age-
appropriate behaviors. Parents also benefit from hearing about others’ struggles and may
subsequently feel less self-blame and alienation. They can provide each other encourage-
ment and support and share successful parenting skills and behavior interventions.

Symptom Management Groups
Symptom management groups focus on helping individuals cope with specific types of
disorders. These groups are structured for people who struggle with specific diagnoses,
such as depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder, eating disorders, obsessive-compulsive disor-
der, borderline personality, ADHD, or addictions. For example, a depression group would
focus on specific symptoms and issues that are unique to people who struggle with depres-
sion. Often they include a significant psychoeducational segment and then focus on skill
improvement. Skill instruction is tailored to the unique needs of the group. These groups
frequently focus on improving the use of coping skills and strategies to manage feelings,
control impulses, reduce problematic thinking patterns, and effectively solve interpersonal
problems. The group process is used to help empower participants to make meaningful
changes, view problems in perspective, and enhance their overall well-being. Managing
symptoms is viewed as an important action step in the recovery process.

Anger Management Groups
An anger management group is one of the most common types of groups found in treat-
ment settings. An inability to manage one’s feelings is a common deficit, especially in people
with emotional problems. The emotion of anger is given special attention because of the
unhealthy behavior choices people often make when they are angry. Verbal or physical
aggression is a common behavioral manifestation of anger. These groups often focus on
finding healthier ways to channel feelings, learning more effective coping skills, building
better assertiveness skills, improving problem-solving ability, challenging distorted think-
ing patterns, resolving conflicts collaboratively, and learning to express feelings without
aggression. The group process is used as an opportunity to practice these skills with the
assistance of the facilitator and other participants.

Life Skills Groups
A life skills group is also often called an independent living skills or daily living skills
group. This group is most commonly used with adults with chronic mental illness, adults
with developmental or cognitive disabilities, and teenagers and young adults. The focus is
on teaching skills to improve the participant’s ability to live independently. These groups
tend to be much more didactic in nature but utilize the group process for collaborative
learning and support-system building. Individual group sessions may focus on managing
money, budgeting, accessing public transportation, securing and maintaining housing,
housekeeping, laundry, grocery shopping, cooking, accessing healthcare and prescrip-
tions, finding employment, job skills, and healthy living. Groups may cover a myriad
of topics and be customized to the specific needs and developmental and skill levels of
participants.

Social Skills Groups
Social skills groups focus on improving the participant’s interpersonal effectiveness skills.
Topics often include improving assertiveness, problem solving, conflict resolution, building
healthy relationships, boundaries, manners, making friends, empathy, and building natural
supports. Participants may be challenged to improve their self-awareness of problematic
and unhealthy behaviors. Role-play is frequently used to practice new skills and improve
the client’s ability to self-manage relationships. At times participants may process specific
problems expressed by group members and discuss potential changes that group members
might make. Group members are encouraged to provide positive and negative feedback,
which enhances participants’ understanding of others’ perception of them.

CHAPTER 1: Groups: Types and Stages of Development 10

Process Groups
Process groups are often used in inpatient, residential, and other settings where group
members spend significant amounts of time together. They are also used in other settings
when one group participant has a major issue to resolve that would be beneficial and rel-
evant for all members to discuss. Sometimes these groups are prescheduled, such as a daily
reflection group at a group home or inpatient facility. Other times a group session may be
called spontaneously to resolve a major conflict or problem within the milieu. The specific
issue is brought to the attention of the group, and participants are encouraged to process
through their thoughts and feelings, provide each other with feedback and support, and
collaboratively problem-solve as a group. Sometimes group members may be confronta-
tional and challenging, which can be a healthy process when facilitated properly. In some
settings, this group is used to help participants process thoughts and feelings about a major
life event, such as the death of a loved one or a suicide attempt by a group member.
Participants are assisted with managing feelings, reframing unhealthy thought patterns,
and integrating life’s challenges.

Stress Management Groups
Stress management groups focus on learning healthier and more effective strategies for
dealing with stress. Participants may be encouraged to make lifestyle changes and take a
more proactive role in reducing stress before it happens. Group facilitators often instruct
on a variety of relaxation techniques and lead participants in practice exercises. Breathing
exercises, guided meditation, yoga, positive imagery, and healthy living are common
themes. Participants are encouraged to practice relaxation techniques at home, which will
improve their ability to use the skills at times of increased stress. Skill development, such
as time management, problem solving, or assertiveness training, may also be a topic for
specific sessions. The group process may also be used to challenge and change thinking
patterns and beliefs that contribute to stress. Psychoeducation may be used to assist partici-
pants to recognize how stress contributes to their disorders. Other areas of discussion could
include exercise, healthy eating, and avoiding substance use. (A stress management group
is sometimes also called an educational group. See Chapter 11 for a detailed discussion of
stress management groups.)

Specialty Groups
Specialty groups address specific topics or problems that are unique to certain client popu-
lations and settings. The focus of the group and topics discussed will vary depending on
client needs. For example, substance abuse programs have a number of different groups
geared specifically toward alcohol and drug addiction recovery. Different groups may focus
on drug and alcohol education, relapse prevention, recovery and lifestyle changes, or 12-step
programs. Other examples would include eating disorder program groups, grief counseling
and support groups, veteran PTSD recovery groups, domestic violence recovery groups, and
healthcare-focused groups for psychological challenges related to patients with cancer, heart
disease, or other major illnesses. (Treatment groups are discussed more fully in Chapter 12.)

In summary, to be a competent group therapist, the professional should have superb
interviewing and counseling skills, a working knowledge of the principles of group dynam-
ics (described in Chapters 1 through 6 of this text), and a working knowledge of contem-
porary therapy approaches, three of which are described in the Group Treatment Theories
Resource Manual, located at the end of this text.

Group treatment has several advantages over one-on-one therapy. The “helper” ther-
apy principle generally is operative. Members at times interchange roles and become the
helper for someone else, receiving psychological rewards and putting their own problems
into perspective in the process. Group treatment also allows members with interaction
problems to test new approaches. In addition, research has shown it is generally easier to
change the attitudes of an individual in a group than one on one.15 Group treatment permits
a social worker to treat more than one person at a time and represents a substantial savings
of professional time. (See “Group Therapy with Substance Use Disorders.”)

11 Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work

Group Therapy with Substance Use Disorders*

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP TREATMENT
Group therapy is one of the therapeutic tools used for treat-
ing people with substance use disorders. A benefit of using
groups for treating people with substance use disorders is
that groups intrinsically reduce feelings of isolation of group
members, and participation in the group allows members of
the group to realize that they are not the only ones dealing
with the process of recovery. These qualities experienced by
the group members can draw them into the culture of recov-
ery. People who abuse substances often are more likely to
remain abstinent and committed to recovery when treatment
is provided in groups because of rewarding and therapeutic
forces such as affiliation, confrontation, support, gratification,
and identification. Groups provide positive peer support and
pressure to abstain from substances of abuse. Another reason
groups work as a mode of treatment for substance use is that
factors associated with substance use, such as depression, iso-
lation, and shame, can be addressed. Great emphasis is placed
on interpersonal process within the groups, which helps sub-
stance use clients resolve problems in relating to other people,
problems that they may have attempted to avoid by means of
addictive substances.a

DEFINING THERAPEUTIC GROUP MODELS
IN SUBSTANCE USE TREATMENT
Five models of groups are used in substance use treatment:

● Psychoeducational groups
● Skills-development groups
● Cognitive-behavioral groups
● Support groups
● Interpersonal process group psychotherapy
Treatment providers routinely use the first four models

and various combinations of them. Interpersonal process
groups are not widely used because of the extensive train-
ing required to lead these groups and the long duration to
complete this type of group. This demands a high level of
commitment from both the providers and the clients.b The
major purpose of psychoeducational groups is to create
and expand awareness about the behavioral, medical, and
psychological consequences of substance use. This type
of group is highly structured and presents group-specific
content. The information presented is designed to have
a direct application to the clients’ lives to help instill self-
awareness. This self-awareness presents options for growth
and change, identifies community resources that can assist
in the recovery process, and attempts to motivate clients to
take action on their own to attend treatment. An example
of a psychoeducational group activity would be to have

group members read and discuss a handout on the poten-
tial physiological effects of alcohol.c

Skills-development groups are primarily developed from
a cognitive-behavioral approach. This approach is most
often used in conjunction with psychoeducational elements.
The most common type of skills-development group is one
that teaches and helps group members develop coping skills.
These skills may be directly related to substance use, such as
learning refusal skills when offered drugs, or to broader areas
in the client’s life, such as ways to manage anger or anxiety.
Many of the skills that people with substance use heed to
develop are interpersonal in nature, so group therapy is a
place for them to practice these skills.d

Cognitive-behavioral groups identify that the substance
use of the individual is a learned behavior that can be modi-
fied through various interventions. These interventions
include identification of conditioned stimuli associated with
the specific addictive behaviors, avoidance of such stimuli,
development of enhanced contingency management strate-
gies, and response desensitization. The cognitive-behavioral
group works to change the learned behavior by changing think-
ing patterns, beliefs, and perceptions (see Modules 1 and 3).
The group activities help the individual develop social networks
that will help support the individual’s recovery. Cognitions devel-
oped by psychological elements such as thoughts, beliefs, deci-
sions, opinions, and assumptions are challenged and strategies are
learned to change these thought patterns. Cognitive-behavioral
groups are most helpful in the beginning stages of recovery.e

Participation in support groups helps members strengthen
their ability to manage their thinking and emotions and to
develop interpersonal skills by interacting with group
members. Group members help each other out by discussing
pragmatic concerns members may currently be having.
An example of this would be group members coaching an
individual on how to manage current triggers of wanting to
use a substance as a way of coping. These groups are used
to improve group members’ self-esteem and self-confidence.
Group leaders and group members offer words of support and
encouragement to each other. Support groups can be found
in all stages of substance use treatment. Learning specific
recovery tools, such as relapse-prevention skills, can be the
basis of forming a substance use support group.f

Interpersonal process groups use psychodynamics, or
knowledge of the way people function psychologically, to pro-
mote change in substance use recovery. The psychodynamic
approach recognizes that unresolved conflicts in the mind
(some that may be out of the person’s awareness) may be
influencing the person’s behavior. Early experiences in the per-
son’s life may be influencing the person’s substance rise. The

(continued)

CHAPTER 1: Groups: Types and Stages of Development 12

individual’s perceptions may be distorting his or her reality,
and behaviors, such as the use of a substance, may be chosen
to deal with the situation.g

STAGES-OF-CHANGE THERAPY
FOR SUBSTANCE USERS
The stages-of-change therapy model can be used for group
therapy for substance users. This model uses the transtheoreti-
cal model of change to describe how people make successful
changes in their lives. The transtheoretical model of change is
based on research completed by Prochaska and Diclemente.h
This model agrees that change does not happen all at once
and it takes time and energy to change. This model notes five
distinct stages of change: precontemplation, contemplation,
preparation, action, and maintenance. (See Chapter 12 for an
expanded description of this approach.) Treatment strategies
for the group are based on the stages-of-change model. It
is important for the leaders of the group to be aware of the
stages of change, determine what stage of change group
members are in, and then develop activities to motivate indi-
viduals to move along the stages of change.i

The change process starts with an individual not knowing
that a change needs to take place. This stage is called the pre-
contemplation stage. In this stage substance abuse users do
not see their using as a problem. If there is a problem, the per-
son is probably ignoring it or does not consider the problem as
something that is important. When the problem can no longer
be ignored—for example, a partner no longer wants to be with
the user because of the using behavior—the individual may
begin to consider that he or she needs to do something about
his or her using. This stage is seen as the contemplation stage
of change. If the problem continues to grow and the individual
begins to make plans to change, this is considered the prepa-
ration stage of the change process. When individuals start the
action stage of change, their mental, physical, and social forces
have been organized and they begin to take steps to make the
change. If the clients continue to maintain the change, it is said
that they are in the maintenance stage of change. This model
does expect and prepares for individuals to possibly go back
to the problem behavior.j

EXERCISE: “A DAY IN THE LIFE”
An example of an exercise that could be completed in a group
setting with clients who are in the precontemplation or contem-
plation stage of change with their substance use is as follows:

Goal
The name of the exercise is called “A Day in the Life.” The
change-process objective for the exercise is for group members

to raise consciousness of their drinking during the day. This
exercise helps raise consciousness about the quantity and fre-
quency of their substance use. Clients in the early stages of
change are often unaware of how much and how often they
are drinking. Students could complete this exercise by thinking
about something that they would like to change in their lives.

Step 1
The facilitator of the group explains in a nonthreatening way
that sometimes it is difficult for people to realize how much
they are using in a day.

Step 2
The facilitator hands out a worksheet and has the clients
answer the following questions: describe your use from the
time you wake up in the morning until around noon; describe
your using from noon until early evening, and describe your
use from around 6 p.m. until you go to bed. Students could an-
swer the same questions about the identified behavior that
they would like to change.

Step 3
Ask the clients to discuss what they have learned about their sub-
stance use by doing the exercise. Discuss with the group mem-
bers when this use may be less or may be more. Students could
discuss what they have learned about their desired behavior
they want to change and reflect on what they learned about the
duration and frequency of the behavior they would like to change.
Students could discuss the importance of raising consciousness
of a behavior in the early stages of the change process.k

* This material was written by Katherine Drechsler and Dr. Sarah
Hessenauer. Ms. Drechsler is a lecturer at the University of Wisconsin–
Whitewater and is a doctoral student in social work at George Williams
College. Dr. Hessenauer is an associate professor and chair of the Social
Work Department at the University of Wisconsin–Whitewater.

a. Harris, J., & Hill, R. (2011). Principles and practice of group work in
addictions. New York, NY: Routledge.

b. Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. (2005). Substance abuse treat-
ment group therapy. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health
Services Administration. (Treatment Improvement Protocol [TIP]
Series, No. 41.) Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.mh.gov/books
/NBK64220/.

c. Ibid.
d. Ibid.
e. Ibid
f. Ibid.
g. Ibid.
h. Prochaska, J. O., & DiClemente, C. C. (1982). Trans-theoretical therapy

toward a more integrative model of change. Psychotherapy Theory,
Research and Practice 19(3), 276–288.

i. Crouch, C., DiClemente, C., Maner, G., & Velasquez, M. (2001). Group
treatment for substance abuse: A stages-of-change therapy manual.
New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

j. Ibid.
k. Ibid.

Group Therapy with Substance Use Disorders* (continued )

13 Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work

Sensitivity and Encounter Training
Encounter groups, sensitivity training groups, and T (training) groups all refer to a group
experience in which people relate to each other in a close interpersonal manner and
self-disclosure is required. The goal is to improve interpersonal awareness. The goal of
sensitivity training groups is to have members develop an increased sensitive awareness
and understanding of oneself and one’s relationships with others. Members participate in
discussions and experiential activities to improve interpersonal awareness.16

An encounter group may meet for a few hours or over a few days. Once increased
interpersonal awareness is achieved, it is anticipated that attitudes and behaviors will
change. For these changes to occur, a three-phase process generally takes place: unfreezing,
change, and refreezing.17

Unfreezing occurs in encounter groups through a deliberate process of interacting in
nontraditional ways. Our attitudes and behavior patterns have been developed through years
of social experiences. Such patterns, following years of experimentation and refinement, have
now become nearly automatic. The interpersonal style we develop through years of trial and
error generally has considerable utility in our everyday interactions. Deep down, however, we
may recognize a need for improvement but are reluctant to make the effort, partly because our
present style is somewhat functional and partly because we are afraid to reveal things about
ourselves. Unfreezing occurs when we decide certain patterns of our present behavior need to
be changed and we are psychologically ready to explore ways to make changes.

Tubbs and Baird describe the unfreezing process in sensitivity groups:

Unfreezing occurs when our expectations are violated. We become less sure of ourselves
when traditional ways of doing things are not followed. In the encounter group, the leader
usually does not act like a leader. He or she frequently starts with a brief statement encour-
aging the group members to participate, to be open and honest, and to expect things to
be different. Group members may begin by taking off their shoes, sitting in a circle on the
floor, and holding hands with their eyes closed. The leader then encourages them to feel
intensely the sensations they are experiencing, the size and texture of the hands they are
holding, and so forth.

Other structured exercises or experiences may be planned to help the group focus on the
“here-and-now” experience. Pairs may go for “trust walks” in which each person alternately
is led around with eyes closed. Sitting face to face and conducting a hand dialogue or a
silent facial mirroring often helps to break the initial barriers to change. Other techniques
may involve the “pass around” in which a person in the center of a tight circle relaxes and is
physically passed around the circle. Those who have trouble feeling a part of the group are
encouraged to break into or out of the circle of people whose hands are tightly held. With
these experiences, most participants begin to feel more open to conversation about what
they have experienced. This sharing of experiences or self-disclosure about the here and
now provides more data for the group to discuss.18

The second phase of the process involves making changes in attitudes and behavior patterns,
which are usually facilitated by spontaneous feedback as to how a person “comes across”
to others. In everyday interaction, spontaneous feedback seldom occurs, so ineffective
interaction patterns are repeated. In sensitivity groups, feedback is strongly encouraged, as
the following interaction illustrates:

Carl: All right (in a sharp tone), let’s get this trust walk over with and stop dillydally-
ing around. I’ll lead the first person around—who wants to be blindfolded first?

Judy: I feel uncomfortable about your statement. I feel you are saying this group is
a waste of your time. Also, this appears to be your third attempt this evening to
“boss” us around.

Jim: I also feel like you are trying to tell us peons what to do. Even the tone of your
voice is autocratic and suggests some disgust with this group.

Carl: I’m sorry. I didn’t mean it to sound like that. I wonder if I do that outside the
group too?

CHAPTER 1: Groups: Types and Stages of Development 14

Such feedback provides us with new insights on how we affect others. Once problem
interactions are identified, that member is encouraged to try out new response patterns in
the relative safety of the group.

The third and final phase involves “refreezing,” a term that is not an accurate descrip-
tion because it implies rigidity within a new set of response patterns. On the contrary, by
experimenting with new sets of behaviors, a group member becomes a growing, continu-
ally changing person who becomes increasingly effective in interacting with others. In ter-
minating a sensitivity group, the leader may alert the participants to be “on guard” as old
behavior patterns tend to creep back in.

Sensitivity groups usually generate an outpouring of emotions, as do treatment groups.
Sensitivity groups provide an interesting contrast to treatment groups. In treatment groups,
each member explores personal and emotional problems in depth and then develops strat-
egies to resolve them. Sensitivity groups generally do not directly attempt to identify and
change specific emotional or personal problems, such as drinking, feelings of depression, or
sexual dysfunctions. The philosophy behind sensitivity groups is that by simply increasing
personal and interpersonal awareness, people will be better able to avoid, cope with, and
handle specific personal problems that arise.

Despite their popularity, sensitivity groups remain controversial. In some cases,
inadequately trained and incompetent individuals have become self-proclaimed leaders
and enticed people to join through sensational advertising. If handled poorly, the short
duration of some groups may intensify personal problems; for example, a person’s defense
mechanisms may be stripped away without first developing adaptive coping patterns. Many
authorities on sensitivity training disclaim the use of encounter groups as a form of psycho-
therapy and discourage those with serious personal problems from joining such a group.
Carl Rogers, in reviewing his own extensive experience as leader/participant, echoes these
concerns:

Frequently the behavior changes that occur, if any, are not lasting. In addition, the indi-
vidual may become deeply involved in revealing himself and then be left with problems
which are not worked through. Less common, but still noteworthy, there are also very
occasional accounts of an individual having a psychotic episode during or immediately fol-
lowing an intensive group experience. We must keep in mind that not all people are suited
for groups.19

In some cases, the popularity of sensitivity groups has led some individuals to enter harm-
ful groups with incompetent leaders where normal ethical standards have been abused.
Shostrom has identified some means by which those interested in encounter groups can
prevent exploitation: (1) Never participate in a group of fewer than a half-dozen members.
The necessary and valuable candor generated by an effective group cannot be dissipated,
shared, or examined by too small a group, and scapegoating or purely vicious ganging up
can develop. (2) Never join an encounter group on impulse—as a fling, binge, or surrender
to the unplanned. (3) Never stay with a group that has a behavioral ax to grind. (4) Never
participate in a group that lacks formal connection with a professional who has proper
credentials.20

After reviewing the research on the outcome of sensitivity groups, Lieberman, Yalom,
and Miles provide an appropriate perspective for those interested in the intensive group
experience:

Encounter groups present a clear and evident danger if they are used for radical surgery to
produce a new man [person]. The danger is even greater when the leader and the partici-
pants share this misconception. If we no longer expect groups to produce magical, lasting
change and if we stop seeing them as panaceas, we can regard them as useful, socially sanc-
tioned opportunities for human beings to explore and to express themselves. Then we can
begin to work on ways to improve them so that they may make a meaningful contribution
toward solving human problems.21

15 Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work

INITIAL DEVELOPMENT OF GROUPS
The process of establishing and conducting groups varies significantly, depending on the
type of group and the specific purposes to be achieved. However, for a group to reach its
maximum potential, some unifying or common elements still need to be addressed prior
to establishing the group. These factors described in this section include determining a
group’s objectives, size, open-ended or closed-ended status, and duration. In addition,
because specific pitfalls or dilemmas characterize certain types of groups, plans must be
made to prevent or handle problems should they arise.

Determining Objectives
Careful consideration must be given to the objectives for a group being formed in order
to select effective members. For example, problem-solving groups often require the
expertise of professionals in other disciplines—professionals whose skills and knowl-
edge directly contribute to the accomplishment of group goals; some of these profes-
sionals may have backgrounds, training, and perceptions that differ from those of the
social worker. Although this approach produces a group with a wealth of expertise,
it creates additional demands on the leader. When the members have diverse back-
grounds and interests, other difficulties include problems encountered in setting goals,
prioritizing goals, and determining tasks to be performed. Educational groups, on the
other hand, are usually composed of members who share a common interest in a par-
ticular area, such as childrearing skills. Individuals with similar needs join an educa-
tional group primarily to gain rather than dispense information. This tends to make
leadership easier. Because potential members of treatment groups (unlike those of
problem-solving or educational groups) often have diverse problems and may also have
interactional difficulties, a much more thorough screening of members is required.
Therefore, it is essential that the objectives or purposes of each group be established
at the beginning because they have a significant impact on the process of membership
selection and other aspects of functioning.

Size
The size of a group affects members’ satisfaction, interaction, and the amount of output
per member. Although smaller groups are generally rated more favorably, larger groups
are often more successful in resolving complex problems.22 Although members in larger
groups experience more stress and greater communication difficulties, they usually bring
a greater number of problem-solving skills and resources to the group as a whole. Because
each person has fewer opportunities to interact in a large group, some members feel inhib-
ited and reluctant to talk. As the size of the group increases, discussion generally hinges on
the input of the most frequent contributor, who assumes a dominant role. As a result, the
gap in participation widens between the most frequent contributor and the other members
of the group.

Contrasting Goals of Treatment Groups versus Sensitivity Groups

TREATMENT GROUPS

Step 1: Examine problems in depth.
Step 2: Develop and select from various resolution approaches
a strategy to resolve the problem.

SENSITIVITY GROUPS

Step 1: Help each person become more aware of himself
or herself and how he or she affects others in interpersonal
interactions.
Step 2: Help a person develop more effective interaction
patterns.

CHAPTER 1: Groups: Types and Stages of Development 16

In his research on group size, Slater found that groups of five people were considered
most satisfactory by members themselves and most effective in dealing with an intellectual
task involving the collection and exchange of information about a situation; the coordina-
tion, analysis, and evaluation of this information; and a group decision regarding the appro-
priate administrative action to be taken.23 In a group of five members, a number of different
relationships can be formed with a moderate level of intimacy. Several individuals can also
act as “buffers” who deal with strained situations or power plays. If a vote is needed to
resolve a dispute, obviously a two-two split can be avoided. In groups smaller than five,
Slater observed, the members were inhibited from expressing their ideas through fear of
alienating one another and thereby destroying the group. In groups of more than five,
members also felt inhibited and participated less often.

Groups with an even number of members tend to have higher rates of disagreement
and antagonism than those with an odd number, apparently because of the possible division
of the group into two equal subdivisions.24 For each task to be accomplished, there is prob-
ably an optimal group size. The more complex the task, the larger the optimal size, so that
the knowledge, abilities, and skills of many members are available to accomplish the task. A
group should be large enough to allow members to speak freely without being inhibited and
small enough to permit a moderate level of intimacy and involvement.

Open-Ended versus Closed-Ended Groups
Whether the group will be open ended, with new members added as old members leave,
or whether the membership will remain constant until termination (closed ended) should
be determined at the outset. Open-ended groups provide a measure of synergism through
the addition of new members. As new individuals join, they provide a different viewpoint,
even though they usually are gradually socialized into group norms and practices by the
older members. The impact of such changes is not all beneficial, however. The constant
change in membership may inhibit openness and detract from the sense of trust needed
before certain subjects are broached. In addition, open groups are likely to “have members
at different levels of commitment to the process and members [who are not] at the same
stages of development.”25

A closed-ended group can often function more effectively because it has a relatively
constant population and often operates within a specified time frame.26 Although the
premature loss of members can seriously damage such a group’s effectiveness, a leader
must deal with member termination in both open and closed groups and plan for this
eventuality.

Duration
The duration of a group has two related components: the number of sessions and the length
of each session. Many groups meet for 1 to 2 hours once or twice a week for a specified
number of weeks. Meeting for 1 to 2 hours tends to optimize productive activity and behav-
ior. Meeting lengths shorter than 1 hour usually do not allow sufficient time to thoroughly
discuss the issues that are raised. In meetings that last longer than 3 hours, members tend
to become drowsy, frustrated, and unable to concentrate. Although a meeting length of 1 to
2 hours appears to be a guideline for optimal functioning in many groups, at times pressing
issues may necessitate a longer meeting to process and conclude group business. Obvi-
ously, if a crisis occurs 5 minutes before the end of the meeting, the group leader should
not conclude the session. By the same token, some discussions can become so intense that
they could last indefinitely and accomplish little. A pragmatic approach to terminating each
meeting or series of meetings within a set time frame will enhance the group’s respect for
the leader and foster the group’s development.

Setting meetings in which there are 3 or 4 (or more) days between meetings usually
allows the members some time to work on tasks that are designed to accomplish their per-
sonal goals and the goals of the group. For example, in educational groups, members can
study and complete homework assignments between meetings. In treatment groups, mem-
bers can carry out homework assignments designed to reduce or resolve personal problems.

17 Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work

STAGES OF GROUPS
The steps involved in planning and implementing educational, treatment, and socialization
groups are similar to the procedures followed by social workers who deal with individual clients:

GROUPS
intake
selection of members
assessment and planning
group development and intervention
evaluation and termination

INDIVIDUALS
intake
assessment and planning
intervention
evaluation and termination

Inexperienced group leaders usually expect a smooth transition from one stage to
another and are disappointed if this does not occur. Therefore, many new practitioners tend
to force the group out of one stage into another instead of allowing the natural growth pro-
cess to evolve. Experience will demonstrate the futility of these efforts as, barring unfore-
seen circumstances, each group will move at its own pace and eventually arrive at the same
destination. Groups that skip stages or whose development is otherwise thwarted will often
return to a previous stage to complete unfinished business. Although groups do sometimes
become mired in one stage, these occurrences are less common than generally thought.
The procedures for establishing socialization, educational, and treatment groups are briefly
summarized in the following material and expanded upon throughout the text.

Intake
During intake, the presenting concerns and needs of prospective members are identi-
fied. Judgments that some or all of these people could benefit from a group approach are
made. An agreement is often formulated between the members of the group and the group
leader about tentative group goals (see Chapter 4). This stage may also be referred to as the
contract stage, as the leader and the members make a commitment to pursue the situation
to the next step.

Selection of Members
Individuals most likely to benefit from a group should be selected as members. Selecting a
group requires attention to both descriptive and behavioral factors.27 A decision needs to
be made whether to seek homogeneity or diversity in these factors. There are few guide-
lines as to when diversity and when homogeneity of these factors will be most effective and
efficient. Age, sex, and level of education are descriptive factors that may create homogene-
ity or foster diversity within the group. In groups of children and adolescents, the age span
among members must be kept relatively small because levels of maturity and interests can
vary greatly. Similarly, same-sex groupings may facilitate achieving group goals for pre-
adolescents, but for middle-adolescent groups there may be specific advantages to having
representation from both sexes.

The behavioral attributes expected of a group member will also have a major
effect on the attainment of group objectives. For example, placing several hyperactive or
aggressive youngsters in a group may be a prelude to failure. Members may be selected
for their value as models for appropriate behavior or because they possess other per-
sonal characteristics expected to enhance the group. As a general rule, the best judgment
regarding a member’s potential contribution to the group is obtained by looking at past
behavioral attributes.28

Assessment and Planning
A more in-depth assessment and statement of goals and plans for action occur during this
phase. In reality, this step is completed only when the group ends because the dynamic
nature of most groups requires an ongoing adjustment of goals and intervention plans.
Goals should be time limited with a reasonable chance for attainment, and the leader should
ensure that all goals are clearly stated to aid in later evaluations. Clarification of goals also
eliminates hidden agendas.

CHAPTER 1: Groups: Types and Stages of Development 18

Group Development and Intervention
Numerous models of group development have evolved. Four of these models are described
in the following section of this chapter, entitled “Models of Group Development over Time.”

Evaluation and Termination
To think of evaluation as a specific point in the life of a group is perhaps not realistic
because evaluation must be an ongoing process. The decision to terminate a group may be
based on the accomplishment of group or individual goals, the expiration of a predeter-
mined period of time, the failure of the group to achieve desired ends, the relocation of the
leader of the group, or a shortage of funds to keep the group going.

The termination of a group often produces the same reactions that characterize the ter-
mination of other significant relationships, including the feeling of being rejected. The group
leader must be aware of these potential feelings and help group members terminate with a min-
imum of difficulty. Additional material on how to terminate a group is presented in Chapter 14.

LO 3 Understand Four Models of Group
Development over Time

MODELS OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT OVER TIME
Groups change over time. Numerous framework models have been developed to describe
these changes. The models of group development described here are (1) the Garland, Jones,
and Kolodny Model; (2) the Tuckman Model; (3) the Northen and Kurland Model; and
(4) the Bales Model.

Garland, Jones, and Kolodny Model
Garland, Jones, and Kolodny developed a model that identifies live stages of development
in social work groups.29 By describing and understanding the various kinds of developmen-
tal problems in groups, leaders can more effectively anticipate and respond to the reactions
of group members. The conceptualization of Garland et al. appears particularly applicable
to socialization, therapeutic, and encounter groups; to a lesser extent, the model is appli-
cable to self-help, task, problem-solving and decision-making, educational, and recreation/
skill groups.

Emotional closeness among members is the central focus of the model and is reflected
in struggles that occur at five stages of group growth: preaffiliation, power and control,
intimacy, differentiation, and separation.

Preaffiliation In the first stage, preaffiliation, members are ambivalent about joining the
group and interaction is guarded. Members test out, often through approach and avoidance
behavior, whether they really want to belong. Because new situations are often frightening,
members attempt to protect themselves from being hurt or taken advantage of, maintaining
a certain amount of distance and attempting to get what they can from the group without
taking many risks. Even though individuals are aware that group involvement will make
demands that may be frustrating or even painful, they are attracted because of rewards and
satisfying experiences in other groups. These former positive ramifications are transferred
to the “new” group. During this first stage, the leader tries to make the group appear as
attractive as possible “by allowing and supporting distance, gently inviting trust, facilitating
exploration of the physical and psychological milieu, and by providing activities if neces-
sary and initiating group structure.”30 This stage ends gradually as members begin to feel
safe and comfortable within the group and to view its rewards as worth a tentative emo-
tional commitment.

Power and Control In the second stage, power and control, the character of the group
begins to emerge. Patterns of communication, alliances, and subgroups begin to develop.

EP 6a
EP 7b

19 Understand Four Models of Group Development over Time

Individuals assume certain roles and responsibilities, establish norms and methods for han-
dling group tasks, and begin to ask questions. Although these processes are necessary to
conduct meetings, they also lead to a power struggle, in which each member attempts to
gain greater control over the gratifications and rewards to be received from the group. A
major source of gratification for any group is the leader, who influences the direction of
the group and gives or withholds emotional and material rewards. At this point, members
realize that the group is becoming important to them. This second stage is transitional,
with certain basic issues requiring resolution: Does the group or the leader have primary
control? What are the limits of the power of the group and of the leader, and to what extent
will the leader use his or her power?

This uncertainty results in anxiety and considerable testing by group members to
gauge limits and establish norms for the power and authority of both the group and
the leader. Rebellion is not uncommon, and the dropout rate in groups is often highest
at this stage. During this struggle the leader should (1) help the members understand
the nature of the power struggle, (2) give emotional support to help members weather
the discomfort of uncertainty, and (3) help establish norms to resolve the uncertainty.
Group members must trust the leader to maintain a safe balance of shared power and
control. When that trust is achieved, group members make a major commitment to
become involved.

Intimacy In the third stage, intimacy, the likes and dislikes of intimate relationships are
expressed. The group becomes more like a family, with sibling rivalry exhibited and with
the leader sometimes referred to as a parent. Feelings are more openly expressed and dis-
cussed, and the group is viewed as a place where growth and change take place. Individuals
feel free to examine and make efforts to change personal attitudes, concerns, and problems,
and there is a feeling of “oneness” or cohesiveness. Members struggle to explore and make
changes in their personal lives and to examine “what this group is all about.”

Differentiation During the fourth stage, differentiation, members are freer to experi-
ment with new and alternative behavior patterns because they recognize individual rights
and needs, and they communicate more effectively. Leadership is more evenly shared, roles
are more functional, and the organization itself is more efficient. Power problems are now
minimal, and decisions are made and carried out on a less emotional and more objective
basis. Garland and Frey note:

This kind of individualized therapeutic cohesion has been achieved because the group
experience has all along valued and nurtured individual integrity. . .

The worker assists in this stage by helping the group to run itself and by encouraging it to act
as a unit with other groups or in the wider community. During this time the [social] worker
exploits opportunities for evaluation by the group of its activities, feelings and behavior.31

The differentiation stage is analogous to a healthy functioning family in which the chil-
dren have reached adulthood and are now becoming successful in pursuing their own lives.
Relationships are more often between equals, and members are mutually supportive and
able to relate to each other in more rational and objective ways.

Separation The final stage is separation. Group purposes have been achieved, and
members have learned new behavioral patterns to enable them to move on to other social
experiences. Termination is not always easily accomplished, as members may be reluctant
to move on and may display regressive behavior to prolong the existence of the group.
Members may express anger or may psychologically deny that termination is approaching.
Garland and Frey describe the leader’s (or social worker’s) role this way:

To facilitate separation the [social] worker must be willing to let go. Concentration
upon group and individual mobility, evaluation of the experience, help with the expres-
sion of the ambivalence about termination and recognition of the progress which has

CHAPTER 1: Groups: Types and Stages of Development 20

been made are his major tasks. Acceptance of termination is facilitated by active guid-
ance of members as individuals to other ongoing sources of support and assistance.32

Tuckman Model
Tuckman reviewed more than 50 studies, primarily of limited-duration therapy and sen-
sitivity groups, and concluded that these groups go through the following five predictable
developmental stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.33 Each
stage will be briefly described.

Forming Members become oriented toward each other, work on being accepted, and
learn more about the group. This stage is marked by a period of uncertainty in which
members try to determine their places in the group and learn the group’s rules and
procedures.

Storming Conflicts begin to arise as members resist the influence of the group and rebel
against accomplishing their tasks. Members confront their various differences, and the
management of conflict often becomes the focus of attention.

Norming The group establishes cohesiveness and commitment. In the process, the
members discover new ways to work together. Norms are also set for appropriate behavior.

Performing The group works as a unit to achieve group goals. Members develop
proficiency in achieving goals and become more flexible in their patterns of working
together.

Adjourning The group disbands. The feelings that members experience are similar to
those in the “separation stage” of the Garland, Jones, and Kolodny Model described in the
previous section.

EXERCISE 1.1 The Garland, Jones, and Kolodny Model

GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you analyze groups in terms of the Garland, Jones, and Kolodny Model.

Write a description of a group that you have participated in that has at least some of the group development stages identified by
the Garland, Jones, and Kolodny Model. Identify the stages of your group that are consistent with the model. Also describe any
developmental stages of your group that are inconsistent with this model.

21 Understand Four Models of Group Development over Time

Northen and Kurland Model*
Northen and Kurland focus on stages of group development and point out that each stage
has its own developmental issues that must be attended to and at least partially resolved
before the group can move into the next stage.34 Northen and Kurland propose a four-stage
model with emphasis on socioemotional themes.

Inclusion-Orientation The main socioemotional theme of this stage, as the title
implies, is whether or not group members will feel included. This stage is typically marked
by anxiety and uncertainty as group members become acquainted with the group leader
and each other. “The major task for the members is to become oriented to the group and to
decide to be included in the group’s membership.”35

Uncertainty-Exploration The major theme of this stage has to do with group mem-
bers’ uncertainty regarding issues of power and control. The socioemotional issue pertains
to conflict, especially in relation to the group leader. Group members at this stage explore
and test their relationships with the leader and each other in order to establish roles and
develop trust and acceptance.

Mutuality-Goal Achievement At this stage, the group is characterized by mutual aid
and problem solving. Socioemotional patterns among group members show greater self-
disclosure, empathy, and mutual acceptance. Conflict and differences are dealt with as a
means to achieve both individual and group goals.

Separation-Termination The final stage focuses on the socioemotional issues of separation
and termination. Members at this stage may be reluctant to leave the leader and the group. The
task here is to help prepare members for termination, deal with any unfinished business, and, most
important, help group members transfer what they have learned in group to life outside the group.

EXERCISE 1.2 The Tuckman Model

GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you analyze groups in terms of the Tuckman Model.

Write a description of a group that you have participated in that has at least some of the group development stages identified by
the Tuckman Model. Identify the stages of your group that are consistent with the model. Also describe any developmental stages
of your group that are inconsistent with this model.

* The description of this model was written by Michael Wallace, MSW, retired instructor of the University of
Wisconsin–Whitewater.

CHAPTER 1: Groups: Types and Stages of Development 22

Sequential-Stage Models of Group Development
The three models of group development that were just described are sequential-stage
models. Despite the variable nature of the stages of group development described in these
three models, these models contain similar stages. As can be seen in Table 1.1, the various
phases of group development can be divided into three phases: beginning, middle, and end.

In sequential models, the beginning stages of groups are concerned with planning,
organizing, convening, and orientation. The beginnings of groups tend to be character-
ized by an emergence of group feeling. However, group feeling does not emerge without a
struggle. Power issues and conflicts between members often emerge. The leader can help
resolve power issues and conflicts by encouraging members to discuss and seek to resolve
the power issues and conflicts that arise. (Strategies to resolve conflicts and power issues
are described in Chapter 6.)

EXERCISE 1.3 The Northen and Kurland Model

GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you analyze groups in terms of the Northen and Kurland Model.

Write a description of a group that you have participated in that has at least some of the group development stages identified
by the Northen and Kurland Model. Identify the stages of your group that are consistent with the model. Also describe any
developmental stages of your group that are inconsistent with this model.

TABLE 1.1 Sequential-Stage Models
of Group Development

Development Stage
Garland, Jones,
and Kolodny Tuckman Northen and Kurland

Beginning Preaffiliation

Power and control

Forming Inclusion–Orientation

Uncertainty–Exploration

Middle Intimacy Storming Mutuality–Goal
Achievement

Differentiation Norming

Performing

End Separation Adjourning Separation–Termination

23 Understand Four Models of Group Development over Time

Although some work is accomplished in all stages of a group’s development, most
occurs in the middle stage. At the beginning of the middle stage, the conflicts over roles,
norms, and power issues found in the later part of the beginning stage give way to the
members’ learning effective patterns of working together. Greater group cohesion appears.
When this occurs, members concern themselves with the work necessary to accomplish the
specific tasks (and achieve the goals) that have been agreed upon.

The end stage of a group is characterized by the completion and evaluation of the
group’s efforts and by members terminating their contact with one another in this specific
group. In this stage, task groups tend to make decisions, finish their business, produce the
results of their efforts, and celebrate the accomplishments. On the other hand, treatment
group members (because they have focused on emotional and behavioral issues) often
experience the termination of the group as an emotional loss. They are pleased that they
have made progress in resolving their issues but have a reluctance to lose the support they
have received from the group. Termination is described in more detail in Chapter 6 and in
Chapter 12.

For the interested reader, a relational model of group development stages in women’s
groups is described in Chapter 7.

Bales Model
The stages described in the models of group development that were just discussed are
sequential-stage models, as they specify sequential stages of group development. In con-
trast, Robert F. Bales developed a recurring-phase model.36 Bales asserted that groups
continue to seek an equilibrium between task-oriented work and emotional expressions
in order to build better relationships among group members. (Task roles and social/emo-
tional roles performed by members of a group are specified at some length in Chapter 3.)
Bales asserts that groups tend to oscillate between these two concerns. Sometimes a group
focuses on identifying and performing the tasks that will lead to achievement of its goals. At
other times, the group focuses on building the morale and improving the social/emotional
atmosphere of the group.

The sequential-stage perspective and the recurring-phase perspective are not necessar-
ily contradictory. Both are useful for understanding group development. The sequential-
stage perspective assumes that groups move through various stages while dealing with a
series of basic themes that surface when they are relevant to the group’s work. The recur-
ring-phase perspective assumes that the issues underlying these basic themes are never
completely resolved and tend to recur later.

GROUP COHESION
Group cohesion is the sum of all the variables influencing members to stay in a group. It
occurs when the positive attractions of a group outweigh the negative implications a mem-
ber might encounter. The word cohesion is derived from Latin and can be translated liter-
ally as the “act of sticking together.” A group’s level of cohesion is constantly changing as
events alter each member’s feelings and attitudes about the group.

The extent of a member’s attraction to and involvement in a group can be mea-
sured by his or her perceptions of the payoffs and costs. They are infinite because they
vary from individual to individual, but the following lists offer a brief indication of
possibilities:

PAYOFFS COSTS
companionship being with people one dislikes
attaining person1al goals expending time and effort
prestige criticism
enjoyment distasteful tasks
emotional support boring meetings

The higher the level of attraction (payoffs), the greater the attractive qualities of
cohesion.

CHAPTER 1: Groups: Types and Stages of Development 24

An individual’s willingness to risk and to become involved in a group depends to a
large extent on the degree to which his or her needs for belonging are met. Often, members
join groups to help meet the need to belong. Membership in a group or a person’s willing-
ness to share himself or herself often hinges on the degree of acceptance experienced in the
group. The climate in a group is a crucial factor in determining the actual sense of belong-
ing that members achieve. Clearly, the need for belonging can be a powerful factor in join-
ing and remaining a member of groups.

Obviously, group members are most attracted to group meetings when friendly, pleas-
ant interactions take place. Besides feeling relaxed, members are more apt to share their
ideas and relate to others within the group. Initially, icebreaker exercises can help members
become more comfortable, and goals can be set that incorporate the personal goals of mem-
bers (see Chapter 4). The more members feel involved in making decisions, the more they
will feel that their views are respected.

Highly cohesive groups have low rates of absenteeism and low turnover in member-
ship. In addition, members are generally motivated to complete assigned tasks, and they
are apt to conform to group norms. They are more willing to listen, accept suggestions, and
defend the group against external criticism. Because a group provides a source of security,
it often rewards members by becoming a support system that reduces anxiety, heightens
self-esteem, adds meaning to living, and often helps members resolve personal problems.
Therefore, membership in a cohesive group enhances a member’s psychological health by
transmitting feelings of being valued, accepted, and liked.

Members should be rewarded for jobs well done rather than coerced or manipulated to
help create a cooperative atmosphere, not a competitive one. Again, pleasing interactions,
rather than a constant war of words or negative banter, increase a group’s cohesion. If a
difficult situation arises, a problem-solving approach should be used. A win–lose approach
usually decreases cohesion (see Chapter 6).

Trust among group members is another necessary condition for effective communica-
tion, cooperation, and cohesion. When distrust exists, individuals will not disclose sensitive

EXERCISE 1.4 Variables that Affect Group Cohesion

GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you understand the variables that contribute to group cohesion.

1. Describe a highly cohesive group (perhaps a sports team, a group at school, or a church group) that you participated in.
Identify the variables that contributed to group cohesion.

2. Describe a group that you have participated in that has very little cohesion. Identify the variables that led this group to have
very little cohesion.

25 Describe the Differences Between Reference Groups and Membership Groups

personal information or commit their resources to accomplishing group goals. Even though
some groups have “built-in” prestige, being a member of certain groups can potentially
damage a member’s reputation (for example, a member of a board of directors of a nursing
home beset by a well-publicized scandal involving extensive patient abuse).

A group’s cohesion will generally decrease when there is a long-term disagreement on
how to define or resolve a major problem. Unreasonable or excessive demands on members,
such as forcing a shy person to give a speech, will also sharply reduce the group’s attractive-
ness. Dominating members and those who engage in repulsive behavior are certainly not
large drawing cards. Scapegoats who are blamed for difficult situations may react aggres-
sively or drop out. Finally, cohesion can be decreased if outside activities of the members
are curtailed because of the group. For example, a student group that meets 2 or 3 nights a
week may interfere with study time, exercising, and socializing.

LO 4 Describe the Differences Between Reference
Groups and Membership Groups

MEMBERSHIP AND REFERENCE GROUPS
A membership group is a group in which a person belongs or does not belong. However,
some people are marginal members of a group. For example, everyone enrolled at a col-
lege campus is a member of the student body, but some students are only marginal mem-
bers because they are not involved in any campus activities. Carol works nearly full-time
in the evening and does not live on campus, but she does attend classes. She identifies
primarily with the people she works with, and other students influence her very little.
Carol, then, has limited psychological membership in the student body and only minor
identification with the campus. Full psychological membership in a group occurs only
when a person is positively attracted to the group and accepted as a member. The more
fully a person is a member of a group, the greater will be that person’s commitment to
accomplishing group goals.

Individuals who aspire to membership in a group will act as the members act. Students
who want to be admitted to a fraternity or sorority, for example, will act like members to
increase their chances of being admitted. Aspiring members are psychologically identifying
with the group, even though they are not members.

Voluntary membership is freely chosen, whereas involuntary membership is required.
Social workers often work with involuntary groups in prison settings, mental hospi-
tals, residential treatment facilities, and schools, where members are often uninterested,
hostile, or disruptive.

Practically all of us are members of a variety of groups. Jim, for example, is a family
member, a Roman Catholic, a PTA member, a forward on a basketball team, a member of
the National Association of Social Workers, and a member of the local board of Planned
Parenthood. Occasionally there are conflicts because the groups may schedule meetings at
the same time and have different norms and values. Planned Parenthood’s views on birth
control and abortion, for example, differ from those espoused by the Catholic Church. To
resolve this dilemma, Jim can compartmentalize his values by accepting Planned Parent-
hood’s views on abortion and birth control and most of the Catholic doctrine except the
Church’s views on abortion and birth control. The resolution of conflicts resulting from
multiple memberships is often attained through much anxiety and great personal cost.

Reference groups are groups whose influence we accept and identify with. In the
example given earlier, Carol is a member of a student body and a work group. Because
she primarily identifies with her work group, it serves as a reference group for her, but the
student body does not. Reference groups have two distinct functions: (1) normative, for
members who seek to conform to their positions and standards for behavior; and (2) deci-
sion making, for members who use group standards, or norms, as the basis for making and
evaluating decisions.

CHAPTER 1: Groups: Types and Stages of Development 26

Some members of a group are referents who influence and are influenced by other
members. In a large group, only a small subgroup of members are referents. These referents
“make sense” to other members (who identify with them), as they are viewed as experts
or authorities, or have most of the power. Occasionally, people select a reference group in
terms of an issue. For example, Jim uses Planned Parenthood as a reference group to express
his feelings on birth control and abortion, whereas he uses the Catholic Church as a refer-
ence group for his views on suicide, euthanasia, life after death, and morality.

BREAKING THE ICE
In most newly formed groups, the leader has the initial responsibility of seeking to create an
atmosphere in which members feel comfortable. Members of a new group are apt to have a
number of concerns: “Will I be respected and accepted?” “Will this group be worth my time
and effort?” “Will I feel embarrassed or inferior?” “Will I be able to form new friendships?”
“Are the other members the kind of people I will like?” “What will my roles and responsi-
bilities be—and will I like them?” “Will I have a leadership role?” “Will others expect more
of me than I am capable of giving?” “Will my personal goals or expectations be realized?”
“If I find I do not like or enjoy this group, is there a nice way to get out?”

To help members become comfortable, the leader might use an ice-breaker exercise. (Several
such exercises are described at the end of this chapter.) Such exercises are designed to help mem-
bers become acquainted with one another, introduce themselves, reduce anxieties, and facilitate
communication. Each group has a unique personality. In most social work groups, the leader
attempts to create an atmosphere in which the members trust one another and want to share
their thoughts and ideas. Ice breakers are an important step in establishing such an atmosphere.

As a student, you have probably observed that each class has a unique personal-
ity. Norms are established in their first few sessions, for example, as to whether students
will share and discuss their opinions and beliefs. If a norm of “silence” is established, the
instructor generally ends up doing practically all the talking. Such a class becomes a “chore”

EXERCISE 1.5 Understanding Membership
and Reference Groups

GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you understand the concepts of reference groups and membership groups.

1. Identify a group that you are a member of that is not a reference group for you. Why is it not a reference group for you?

2. Identify a group that you are a member of that is a reference group for you. Describe why you identify with this reference group.

27 Comprehend Guidelines on How to Conduct Classroom Exercises

for the instructor and for the students. Many of the ingredients that go into determining
whether a class will establish a norm of “talking” or of “silence” are unknown. Certainly, a
norm of talking is facilitated by ice breakers.

Ice-breaking exercises can also accomplish specific objectives, such as obtaining in-
formation on the members’ expectations for the group. One such ice breaker is described
at the end of this chapter. Before we consider ice-breaker exercises, the pitfalls, ethics, and
guidelines on conducting classroom exercises will be summarized.

EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
It is important that social work students receive experiential training in classes to prepare
them for the realities of social work practice. Social workers encounter many sensitive situ-
ations in the course of their work: divorce, suicide, child abuse and neglect, incest, and
death. In a classroom, a qualified instructor observes the level of psychological stress in
participants, provides feedback on how to better handle sensitive situations, and inter-
venes if necessary. After students graduate and begin working with clients, such guidance is
seldom available. Therefore, it is vital that they develop their skills through practical
classroom applications before they venture into real group counseling situations.

Classroom exercises offer a variety of payoffs. They can illustrate key theoretical
concepts, clarify values, or help students develop skills such as assessment and intervention.
They are generally fun and often teach students more effectively than other mechanisms.
Exercises also help students get acquainted, build group cohesion, and increase group morale.

LO 5 Comprehend Guidelines on How
to Conduct Classroom Exercises

Ethics and Guidelines for Conducting Exercises

1. The leader has the tasks of explaining the objectives, describing the steps, beginning
the exercise, keeping the members on task and on time, modeling appropriate values
and skills, leading the members in discussing and evaluating the exercise after it is
conducted, and being alert to the emotional reactions of the members to the exercise.

2. Generally, the more enthusiasm the instructor displays for class exercises, the more
enthusiasm the students will display.

3. Students learn in different ways. Some will be more responsive and learn more from
exercises than others.

4. The learning needs of the students should determine the kinds of exercises used.
Leaders may want to modify the exercises in this text to meet special learning needs.
In designing or modifying an exercise, leaders should consider the following
questions: Is this the best exercise to accomplish the learning objectives? Should the
exercise be modified to better fit the characteristics of the group? How can processing
of the exercise be best accomplished? Is there sufficient class time to conduct the
exercise? Is the group too large or too small for the exercise? Are the required materi-
als available? What problems may arise? Is there sufficient time to process problems?

5. To allot enough time, the leaders should estimate how much time each step in the
exercise will take.

6. When an exercise is introduced, group members should be informed of the objec-
tives, given an overview of what will occur, and encouraged to ask questions. Mem-
bers have a right to expect clear information before beginning the exercise. To build
trust, the leader should not give false information or incorrect answers to questions.
If an accurate answer to a question raised before the exercise is conducted will reveal
information the exercise is designed to convey, the leader may say, “It is best to delay
answering this question, as the exercise is designed to reveal the answer.”

7. The instructor should always be present when an exercise is being conducted.

EP1a

CHAPTER 1: Groups: Types and Stages of Development 28

8. The leader should have specific educational objectives for each exercise and be able
to articulate these objectives. Students have the right to know what the objectives
are. (If stating the objectives at the beginning will “give away” a point hidden in the
exercise, the objectives should be carefully explained at the end.)

9. The leader should carefully plan each exercise and be qualified to conduct it. The
exercises in this text are explained in considerable detail. The leader should prepare
for each exercise by reading and visualizing the steps and by thinking about how this
specific class might respond.

10. A few exercises may arouse strong emotions because they may touch an area in
which a student is struggling. The instructor should thus observe students closely, be
prepared to talk privately with such students after class, and be aware of appropriate
counseling resources for students whose psychological stress is severe.

11. The instructor should seek to establish a supportive, caring, and respectful atmo-
sphere among the students.

12. The class should understand the importance of keeping sensitive personal informa-
tion confidential.

13. Once the objectives and format of an exercise are explained, student participation
should be voluntary. Students who do not wish to participate should be excused with
the understanding that every student is expected to participate in most of the exercises.

14. No exercise should be so secretive or sensitive that other faculty could not be invited
to observe.

15. It is generally better to use one or two exercises to demonstrate a point than to use
several.

16. If numerous exercises are conducted during a term, the instructor should seek to have
each student take an active role in at least some of them. Special efforts should be
made to involve those students who are quiet and nonassertive.

17. The instructor should critique student skills or behavior in a positive way. The
student should not be made to feel inferior, incompetent, or inadequate. When a
shortcoming is pointed out, the student should also be praised for what she or he did
well. The feedback should focus on behavior rather than on the person, on observa-
tions rather than on judgments. A problem-solving approach in which shortcomings
are identified and alternatives for improvement provided works well. The feedback
should focus on sharing ideas and information rather than on giving advice. The
instructor should never embarrass a student in front of classmates, and sensitive
subjects should be covered in a private meeting with that student.

18. The instructor should provide encouragement by being positive and by praising, at
one time or another, each student for such actions as making positive contributions,
putting forth effort, displaying progress, showing unique skills, or being perceptive
and respectful of others.

19. After completion, each exercise should be discussed and evaluated in an open, relaxed
atmosphere. Students must feel free to raise questions, express thoughts and concerns,
and discuss the merits and shortcomings of the exercise. Such an evaluation brings about
closure, which is important, and helps the leader improve the exercise for future use.

20. Even the most carefully designed exercises sometimes fail. An important instruction
may have been left out. The students may be distracted by other concerns and fail
to give the exercise their undivided attention. The exercise may be poorly designed.
When an exercise flops, it is generally best to acknowledge that things did not go as
planned. Attempting to cover up an obvious flop will only cause students to question
the honesty and effectiveness of the leader. Humor can “take the edge off,” and the
leader may be able to achieve the learning objectives by using another closely related
exercise. At times, an exercise may be a complete loss. How the instructor reacts will
be a factor in determining the students’ confidence in the instructor. In addition, an
appropriate reaction will help students learn how to respond to failures in groups
they lead. Because humans are fallible by nature, some exercises will not achieve the
desired objectives, and instructors should learn from such mistakes.

29 Group Exercises

Pitfalls to Avoid in Conducting Class Exercises

1. Class exercises are not designed to solve emotional problems. Certainly the leader
should not seek to meet his or her emotional needs through such exercises.

2. Class exercises should not be used simply to fill class time. They should have legiti-
mate teaching objectives and value.

3. An exercise should not be used if there is insufficient time to discuss or process the
activity.

4. Exercises should not replace other forms of instruction, such as lectures.
5. Although some students enroll in social work and psychology courses to solve their

own personal problems, experiential exercises should not encourage students to
disclose material they will later regret having divulged. If extremely personal infor-
mation is revealed, the class atmosphere must be supportive. Subsequent discussion
should be more generalized and objective.

Summary

The following summarizes the chapter’s content in terms of the learning objectives presented at the beginning of the chapter.

1. Understand the history of social group work.
The roots of group social work began in the settlement houses and the YMCAs and
YWCAs in the 1800s.

2. Identity the primary types of groups in social work.
The following types of groups are described: social conversation, recreation/skill
building, education, task, problem solving and decision making, focus, self-help and
mutual aid, socialization, treatment, and sensitivity and encounter training.

3. Understand the four models of group development over time.
Four models of group development over time are presented: Garland, Jones, and
Kolodny Model; Tuckman Model; Northen and Kurland Model; and Bales Model.

4. Describe the differences between reference groups and membership groups.
A membership is a group in which a person belongs or does not belong. A reference
group is a group that a person identifies with.

5. Comprehend guidelines on how to conduct classroom exercises.
A number of guidelines are presented on how to ethically conduct group exercises.

Group Exercises

GOAL: The following exercises are designed to help break the ice in new groups and are just
a sample of the many ice-breaker exercises available. The group leader should select exercises
appropriate to specific groups and modify them as needed.

EXERCISE A: Getting Acquainted
The leader asks the members to sit in a circle and explains that the goal is to get acquainted. The
group members are asked to make a list of what they would like to know about each other, such
as name, year in school, major, and reason for taking the course. An interesting item the leader

CHAPTER 1: Groups: Types and Stages of Development 30

may decide to add is “most embarrassing moment” or “tell us something about you that would
surprise us.” The list should be written on a blackboard or flip chart. One by one the members,
including the leader, respond to the listed items. The leader should then ask if there is additional
information the members want to know about him or her, including training and professional
experience, and should answer all questions except those considered too personal.

EXERCISE B: Introducing to a Partner
Follow the same format as in Exercise A. The only variant is that after the items are listed, the
members pair off and gather the information from their partners. If there is an uneven number of
members, form one subgroup of three. Allow 5 minutes for information gathering. Partners then
introduce each other to the group.

EXERCISE C: Personal Expectations for the Group
The leader asks the members to introduce themselves. Possible items that might be covered are
the following:

Name
Year in school
Major
Paid experience in social work
Volunteer experience in social work
Most embarrassing experience (for humor)
Reason for taking course
Personal expectations for the class or group
Something about you that would surprise us

This ice breaker is useful as a first step in seeking to identify the personal goals of members. The
leader’s goals and objectives for the group should then be given. A discussion may well ensue,
and it might focus on setting group goals. The leader should be flexible, seeking to set goals that
meet the legitimate expectations of the members. If one or more expectations are beyond the
objectives of the group, the leader should tactfully indicate this and explain why.

EXERCISE D: Searching for Descriptors
The leader passes out a list of descriptors designed for a specific group. (A descriptor is a word
or phrase that identifies an item.) Some possibilities are given here. Each group member then
finds three others who say “yes” to specific descriptors. (The number “three” may be increased
or decreased.) Each member should then give a completed list to the leader. The exercise may be
ended by asking the members what items of interest they learned about others.

SAMPLE DESCRIPTORS
Likes professional football
Is a Leo
Plays golf
Likes classical music
Has had a paid or volunteer job in social work
Is dating somewhat steadily or is married
Has received a speeding ticket
Owns a car
Has water-skied
Has traveled in Mexico
Has meditated
Likes to jog

31 Key Terms and Concepts

Enjoys riding horses
Has flown airplanes
Attends church regularly

EXERCISE E: Why I Decided to Be a Social Worker
Each member writes down on a sheet of paper the reasons that she or he decided to become a
social worker. These reasons may include specific incidents or events. Each member then states
his or her name and shares with the group the reasons he or she has decided to pursue a career
in social work.

Competency Notes

EP 6a Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and
other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and constituencies.

EP 7b Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and
other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment data from clients and
constituencies. (pp. 18–23)

Four models of group development are presented that social workers use to engage with and
assess groups.

EP 1a Make ethical decisions by applying the standards of the NASW Code of Ethics, relevant laws and
regulations, models for ethical decision-making, ethical conduct of research, and additional codes
of ethics as appropriate to context. (pp. 27–29)

Ethical guidelines are presented that allow social workers to lead group exercises in an ethical
manner.

Key Terms and Concepts

Ad Hoc Committee
Behavioral Attributes
Board of Directors
Change
Closed-Ended Group
Cohesion
Committee

Descriptive Factors
Differentiation
Informal Recreational Groups
Intimacy
Involuntary Membership
Membership Group
Open-Ended Groups

Power and Control
Preaffiliation
Reference Groups
Refreezing
Representative Group
Separation

Skill-Building Recreational
Groups

Struggles
Task Force
Unfreezing
Voluntary Membership

LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
This chapter will help prepare
students to:

LO 1
Conceptualize social work
practice.

LO 2
Understand the medical
model approach and the
ecological approach to
assessing and changing
human behavior.

LO 3
Specify the goals of social
work practice.

LO 4
Understand the strengths
perspective in working with
clients.

LO 5
Understand the
conceptualization of
social work practice
that is presented in
the Educational Policy
Statement of the Council
on Social Work Education
for baccalaureate degree
programs and master’s
degree programs in social
work.

Social Group Work
and Social Work Practice

What do social workers do? How is social work different from psychology, psychiatry, guidance and counseling, and other helping professions? What is the relationship
between social work and social welfare? What knowledge, skills, and values do social workers
need to be effective? This chapter will seek to address these questions. There have been
a number of other efforts to address these same issues.1 This chapter is largely an effort
to integrate these prior conceptualizations. The purpose of this chapter is to describe
social work as a profession and thereby assist social workers and other interested persons in
understanding and articulating what social work is and what is unique about the social
work profession.

LO 1 Conceptualize Social Work Practice

DEFINITION OF SOCIAL WORK
Social work has been defined by the National Association of Social Workers
(NASW) as follows:

Social work is the professional activity of helping individuals, groups, or com-
munities to enhance or restore their capacity for social functioning and to cre-
ate societal conditions favorable to their goals.

Social work practice consists of the professional application of social work
values, principles, and techniques to one or more of the following ends: help-
ing people obtain tangible services; providing counseling and psychotherapy
for individuals, families, and groups; helping communities or groups provide
or improve social and health services; and participating in relevant legislative
processes.

The practice of social work requires knowledge of human development and
behavior; of social, economic, and cultural institutions; and of the interaction
of all these factors.2

The term social worker is generally applied to graduates (with bach-
elor’s or master’s degrees) of educational programs in social work who are
employed in the field of social welfare. A social worker is a change agent, a helper
who is specifically employed for the purpose of creating planned change.3 As
a change agent, a social worker is expected to be skilled at working with indi-
viduals, groups, families, and organizations and in bringing about community
changes.

33 Conceptualize Social Work Practice

RELATIONSHIP BET WEEN SOCIAL
WORK AND SOCIAL WELFARE
The goal of social welfare is to fulfill the social, financial, health, and recreational require-
ments of all individuals in a society. Social welfare seeks to enhance the social functioning
of all age groups, both rich and poor. When other institutions in our society (such as the
market economy and the family) fail at times to meet the basic needs of individuals or
groups of people, then social services are needed and demanded. “Social welfare is about
how people, communities and institutions in a society take action to provide certain mini-
mum standards and certain opportunities.”4

Examples of social welfare programs and services are foster care, adoption, day care,
Head Start, probation and parole, public assistance programs (such as food stamps),
public health nursing, sex therapy, suicide counseling, recreational services (Boy Scouts
and YWCA programs), services to populations at risk (such as older persons), school social
services, medical and legal services to the poor, family planning services, Meals on Wheels,
nursing home services, shelters for battered spouses, services to persons with acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), protective services for victims of child abuse and
neglect, assertiveness training, encounter groups and sensitivity training, public housing
projects, family counseling, Alcoholics Anonymous, runaway services, services to people
with developmental disabilities, and rehabilitation services.

Almost all social workers are employed in the field of social welfare. There are,
however, many other professional and occupational groups working in the field of social
welfare, as illustrated in Figure 2.1.

FIGURE 2.1 Examples of Professional Groups Within the Field of Social Welfare

Professional people staffing social welfare services include attorneys providing legal
services to the poor; urban planners in social planning agencies; physicians in public
health agencies; teachers in residential treatment facilities for the emotionally disturbed;
psychologists, nurses, and recreational therapists in mental hospitals; and psychiatrists in
mental health clinics.

Attorneys

Teachers

SOCIAL
WELFARE

Planners

Psychiatrists

Social
workers

Psychologists

Nurses

Recreational
therapistsPhysicians

CHAPTER 2: Social Group Work and Social Work Practice 34

WHAT IS THE PROFESSION OF SOCIAL WORK?
The NASW defines the social work profession as follows:

The social work profession exists to provide humane and effective social services to
individuals, families, groups, communities, and society so that social functioning may be
enhanced and the quality of life improved. . . .

The profession of social work by both traditional and practical definition, is the profession
that provides the formal knowledge base, theoretical concepts, specific functional skills,
and essential social values which are used to implement society’s mandate to provide safe,
effective, and constructive social services.5

Social work is thus distinct from other professions (such as psychology and psychiatry)
as it is the profession that has the responsibility and mandate to provide social services.

A social worker needs training and expertise in a wide range of areas to be able to effec-
tively handle problems faced by individuals, groups, families, organizations, and the larger
community. Although most professions are becoming more specialized (for example, most
medical doctors now specialize in one or two areas), social work continues to emphasize a
generic (broad-based) approach. The practice of social work is analogous to the old general
practice of medicine. A general practitioner in medicine (or family practice) has training to
handle a wide range of common medical problems faced by people, and a social worker has
training to handle a wide range of common social and personal problems faced by people.

GENERALIST SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
There used to be an erroneous belief that a social worker was a caseworker, a group worker,
or a community organizer. Practicing social workers know that such a belief is faulty
because every social worker is involved as a change agent in working with individuals,
groups, families, organizations, and the larger community. The amount of time spent at
each level varies from worker to worker, but every worker will, at times, be assigned and
expected to work at these five levels and therefore needs training in all of them. A generalist
social worker has the skills, and utilizes those skills, to work with the following five client
systems: individuals, groups, families, organizations, and communities.

A generalist social worker is trained to use the problem-solving process to assess and
intervene with the problems confronting individuals, families, groups, organizations, and
communities.

The Baccalaureate Program Directors (BPD) organization defined generalist practice
as follows:

Generalist social work practitioners work with individuals, families, groups, communities,
and organizations in a variety of social work and host settings. Generalist practitioners view
clients and client systems from a strengths perspective in order to recognize, support, and
build upon the innate capabilities of all human beings. They use a professional problem-
solving process to engage, assess, broker services, advocate, counsel, educate, and organize
with and on behalf of the client and client systems. In addition, generalist practitioners en-
gage in community and organizational development. Finally, generalist practitioners evalu-
ate service outcomes in order to continually improve the provision and quality of services
most appropriate to client needs.

Generalist social work practice is guided by the NASW Code of Ethics and is committed to
improving the well-being of individuals, families, groups, communities, and organizations
and furthering the goals of social justice.6

The Council on Social Work Education (2015) in Educational Policy and Accreditation
Standards also defined generalist practice:

Generalist practice is grounded in the liberal arts and the person-in-environment frame-
work. To promote human and social well-being, generalist practitioners use a range of

35 Conceptualize Social Work Practice

prevention and intervention methods in their practice with diverse individuals, families,
groups, organizations, and communities based on scientific inquiry and best practices. The
generalist practitioner identifies with the social work profession and applies ethical prin-
ciples and critical thinking in practice at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels. Generalist
practitioners engage diversity in their practice and advocate for human rights and social
and economic justice. They recognize, support, and build on the strengths and resiliency of
all human beings. They engage in research-informed practice and are proactive in respond-
ing to the impact of context on professional practice.7

The crux of generalist practice involves a view of the situation in terms of the
person-in-environment conceptualization (described under “Ecological Model,” p. 40 in
this chapter) and the capacity and willingness to intervene at several different levels, if
necessary, while assuming any number of roles. The case example in the box “Generalist
Practice Involves Options Planning” illustrates the approach of responding at several dif-
ferent levels in a variety of roles.

This text should facilitate readers’ learning of a generalist practice approach in social
work by describing a variety of assessment and intervention strategies. Through learning
these strategies, readers can then select those approaches that hold the most promise in
facilitating positive changes in clients (who may be individuals, groups, families, organiza-
tions, or communities).

EXERCISE 2.1 Your Areas of Interest in Social Work

GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you identify the social work areas that you desire to work in.

1. Rank the following five client systems in the order that you prefer to work with them (with 1 indicating your first choice).

Individuals
Families
Groups
Organizations
The larger community

2. Describe the reasons for your ranking order.

3. Describe the areas of social work (such as services to battered spouses) that you prefer to work in. Also specify your reasons
for your selected areas.

CHAPTER 2: Social Group Work and Social Work Practice 36

A VARIETY OF ROLES
In working with individuals, groups, families, organizations, and communities, a social
worker is expected to be knowledgeable and skillful in filling a variety of roles. The par-
ticular role selected should (ideally) be determined by what will be most effective, given
the circumstances. The following material identifies some, but certainly not all, of the roles
assumed by social workers.

Enabler
In this role, a worker helps individuals or groups articulate their needs, clarify and iden-
tify their problems, explore resolution strategies, select and apply a strategy, and develop
their capacities to deal with problems more effectively. This role model is perhaps the
most frequently used approach in counseling individuals, groups, and families and is used
in community practice—primarily when the objective is to help people organize to help
themselves.

(It should be noted that this definition of the term enabler is very different from the
definition used in reference to chemical dependency. There the term refers to a family
member or friend who facilitates the substance abuser in persisting in the use and abuse of
drugs.)

Broker
A broker links individuals and groups who need help and do not know where to find it with
community services. For example, a wife who is physically abused by her husband might be
referred to a shelter for battered women. Nowadays even moderate-sized communities have
200 to 300 social service agencies and organizations. Even human services professionals are
often only partially aware of the total service network in their community.

Advocate
The role of advocate has been borrowed from the law profession. It is an active, directive
role in which the social worker represents a client or a citizens’ group. When a client or a
citizens’ group needs help and existing institutions are uninterested (or openly negative

EP 8a

Generalist Practice Involves Options Planning

Jack Dawson is a social worker at a high school in a Midwestern
state. Four teenagers have been expelled (consistent with
school board policy) for drinking alcoholic beverages at the
school during school hours. Mr. Dawson assesses the situa-
tion and identifies the following potential courses of action.
He can serve as an advocate for the youths by urging the
school board and the administration to reinstate the youths.
Mr. Dawson is aware that the expulsions are upsetting not
only to the youths and their parents, but also to the police
department and the business community (because expelled
youths tend to spend the day on city streets). He can in-
volve the four teenagers in one-to-one counseling about
their expulsion and their drinking patterns. He can involve
these youths (along with others having drinking problems)
in group counseling at the school. He can function as a bro-
ker to have the youths receive individual or group counseling
from a counseling center outside the school system. He can

ascertain the willingness of the parents to become involved
in family therapy and serve as a broker to link the interested
families with a counseling center that offers this service. He
can raise the issue to parents, to the business community,
to the police department, to the school administration, and
to the school board of whether expulsion from school for
drinking alcoholic beverages is a desirable policy. (Perhaps
a better school system policy in cases like this is to place the
youths on “in-school suspension,” where they are required
to stay in a study room for a few days.) Expulsion is a dras-
tic measure that may adversely affect the futures of these
youths. Mr. Dawson can serve as an organizer and a catalyst
to encourage interested parents and school staff to use the
incident as a rationale for incorporating educational material
on alcohol and other drugs into the curriculum. (The selected
courses of action will depend on a variety of factors, includ-
ing a cost-benefit analysis of each course.)

37 Conceptualize Social Work Practice

and hostile), the advocate’s role may be appropriate. The advocate provides leadership in
collecting information, arguing for the validity of the client’s need and request, and chal-
lenging the institution’s decision not to provide services. The purpose is not to ridicule or
censure a particular institution, but to modify or change one or more of its service policies.
In this role, the advocate is a partisan who is exclusively serving the interests of a client or
a citizens’ group.

Empowerer
A key goal of social work practice is empowerment, the process of helping individu-
als, families, groups, organizations, and communities increase their personal, interper-
sonal, socioeconomic, and political strength and influence. Social workers who engage in
empowerment-focused practice seek to develop the capacity of clients to understand their
environment, make choices, take responsibility for those choices, and influence their life
situations through organization and advocacy. Empowerment-focused social workers
also seek a more equitable distribution of resources and power among different groups in
society. This focus on equity and social justice has been a hallmark of the social work
profession as practiced by Jane Addams and other early settlement workers.

Activist
An activist seeks basic institutional change; often the objective involves a shift in power
and resources to a disadvantaged group. An activist is concerned about social injus-
tice, inequity, and deprivation. Tactics involve conflict, confrontation, and negotiation.
Social action is concerned with changing the social environment in order to better
meet the recognized needs of individuals. The methods used are assertive and action
oriented (for example, organizing welfare recipients to work toward improvements
in services and increases in money payments). Activities of social action include fact
finding, analysis of community needs, research, dissemination and interpretation of
information, organizing activities with people, and other efforts to mobilize public
understanding and support on behalf of some existing or proposed social program.
Social action activity can be geared toward a problem that is local, statewide, or national
in scope.

Mediator
The mediator role involves intervention in disputes between parties to help them find
compromises, reconcile differences, or reach mutually satisfactory agreements. Social
workers have used their value orientations and unique skills in many forms of mediation
(for example, divorcing spouses, neighbors in conflict, landlords and tenants, labor and
management, and contenders for child custody). A mediator remains neutral, not siding
with either party in the dispute. Mediators make sure they understand the positions of both
parties. They may help clarify positions, identify miscommunication about differences,
and help both parties present their cases clearly.

Negotiator
A negotiator brings together people in conflict and seeks to bargain and compromise
to find mutually acceptable agreements. Somewhat like mediation, negotiation involves
finding a middle ground that all sides can live with. However, unlike a mediator (who
maintains a neutral position), a negotiator is usually allied with one side or the other.

Educator
The educator gives information to clients and teaches them adaptive skills. To be an ef-
fective educator, the worker must first be knowledgeable. Additionally, the worker must
be a good communicator so information is conveyed clearly and is readily understood by
the receiver. An educator can teach parenting skills to young parents, instruct teenagers in
job-hunting strategies, and teach anger-control techniques to individuals with aggressive
tendencies.

CHAPTER 2: Social Group Work and Social Work Practice 38

Initiator
An initiator calls attention to a problem or to a potential problem. It is important to rec-
ognize that sometimes a potential problem requires attention. For example, if a proposal is
made to renovate a low-income neighborhood by building middle-income housing units,
the initiator will be concerned that low-income residents could become homeless if the pro-
posal is approved, because these current residents may not be able to afford middle-income
units. However, calling attention to problems usually does not resolve them, so the initiator
role must often be followed by other kinds of work.

Coordinator
Coordination involves bringing components together in an organized manner. For exam-
ple, a multiproblem family may need help from several agencies to meet its complicated
financial, emotional, legal, health, social, educational, recreational, and interactional needs.
Frequently, someone at an agency must assume the role of case manager to coordinate ser-
vices from different agencies and avoid both duplication of services and conflict among the
services.

Researcher
At times every worker is a researcher. Research in social work practice can involve reading
literature on topics of interest, evaluating the outcomes of one’s practice, assessing the mer-
its and shortcomings of programs, and studying community needs.

Group Facilitator
A group facilitator serves as a leader for a group discussion in a therapy group, an educa-
tional group, a self-help group, a sensitivity group, a family therapy group, or a group with
some other focus.

Public Speaker
Social workers occasionally talk to a variety of groups (for example, high school classes,
public service organizations such as Kiwanis, police officers, staff at other agencies) to
inform them of available services or to argue the need for new services. In recent years,
various new services have been identified (for example, family preservation programs and
services for people with AIDS). Social workers who have public speaking skills are better
able to explain services to groups of potential clients and funding sources and are apt to be
rewarded (including financially) by their employers for these skills.

A SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE
Social workers are trained to take a systems perspective on their work with individuals,
groups, families, organizations, and communities. A systems perspective emphasizes look-
ing beyond the presenting problems of clients in order to assess the complexities and in-
terrelationships of their problems. A systems perspective is based on systems theory. Key
concepts of general systems theory are wholeness, relationship, and homeostasis.

The concept of wholeness means that the objects or elements within a system produce
an entity greater than the additive sums of the separate parts. Systems theory is antireduc-
tionistic, asserting that no system can be adequately understood or totally explained once it
has been broken down into its component parts. (For example, the central nervous system
is able to carry out thought processes that would not be revealed if only the parts were
observed.)

The concept of relationship asserts that the pattern and structure of the elements in
a system are as important as the elements themselves. For example, Masters and Johnson
have found that sexual dysfunctions primarily occur due to the nature of the relationship
between husband and wife, rather than the psychological makeup of the partners in a
marriage system.8

Systems theory opposes simple cause-and-effect explanations. For example, whether a
child will be abused in a family is determined by a variety of variables and the patterns of

39 Conceptualize Social Work Practice

these variables, such as the parents’ capacity to control their anger, relationships between
the child and parents, relationships between the parents, degree of psychological stress,
characteristics of the child, and opportunities for socially acceptable ways for the parents
to ventilate anger.

EXERCISE 2.2 Your Interest in Various Social Work Roles

GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you identify the social work roles in which you would
like to become involved.

1. Check one of the following for each of the indicated roles.

2. Describe your reasons for selecting the particular roles in which you desire to become
involved.

3. Describe your reasons for selecting the particular roles in which you do not want to
become involved.

EP 8a I Desire to
Become Involved
in This Role Uncertain

I Do Not Want to
Become Involved
in This Role

Enabler

Broker

Advocate

Empowerer

Activist

Mediator

Negotiator

Educator

Initiator

Coordinator

Researcher

Group Facilitator

Public Speaker

CHAPTER 2: Social Group Work and Social Work Practice 40

The concept of homeostasis suggests that living systems seek a balance to maintain
and preserve the system. Jackson, for example, has noted that families tend to establish
a behavioral balance or stability and to resist any change from that predetermined level
of stability.9 Emergence of the state of imbalance (generated either within or outside the
marriage) ultimately acts to restore the homeostatic balance of the family. If one child
in a family is abused, that abuse often serves a function—as indicated by the fact that if
that that child is removed, a second child is often abused. Or if one family member
improves through seeking counseling, that improvement will generally upset the balance
within the family, and other family members will have to make changes (such changes
may be adaptive or maladaptive) to adjust to the new behavior of the improved family
member.

Ecological theory is a subcategory of systems theory and has become prominent in
social work practice, as discussed in the next section.

LO 2 Understand the Medical Model Approach
and the Ecological Approach to Assessing
and Changing Human Behavior

MEDICAL MODEL VERSUS ECOLOGICAL MODEL
From the 1920s to the 1960s, most social workers used a medical model approach to assess-
ing and changing human behavior. This approach, initiated primarily by Sigmund Freud,
views clients as patients. The task of the provider of services is first to diagnose the causes
of a patient’s problems and then to provide treatment. The patient’s problems are viewed as
being inside the patient.

Medical Model
In regard to emotional and behavioral problems of people, the medical model conceptu-
alizes these problems as mental illnesses. People with emotional or behavioral problems
are then given medical labels such as schizophrenia, paranoia, psychosis, and insanity.
Adherents of the medical approach believe the disturbed person’s mind is affected by some
generally unknown internal condition that is thought to result from a variety of possible
causative factors: genetic endowment, metabolic disorders, infectious diseases, internal
conflicts, unconscious uses of defense mechanisms, and traumatic early experiences that
cause emotional fixations and prevent future psychological growth.

The medical model has a lengthy classification of mental disorders defined by the
American Psychiatric Association (APA). The major categories of mental disorders are
listed in Table 2.1.

The medical model approach arose in reaction to the historical notion that the
emotionally disturbed were possessed by demons, were mad, and were to be blamed for
their disturbances. These people were “treated” by being beaten, locked up, or killed.
The medical model led to viewing the disturbed as in need of help, stimulated research
into the nature of emotional problems, and promoted the development of therapeutic
approaches.

The major evidence for the validity of the medical model approach comes from studies
suggesting that some mental disorders, such as schizophrenia, may be influenced by genet-
ics (heredity). The bulk of the evidence for the significance of heredity comes from studies
of twins. For example, in some studies identical twins have been found to have a concor-
dance rate (that is, if one has it, both have it) for schizophrenia of about 50%.10

Keep in mind that the rate of schizophrenia in the general population is about 1%.11
When one identical twin is schizophrenic, the other is 50 times more likely than the average
to be schizophrenic. This suggests a causal influence of genes, but not genetic determina-
tion, as concordance for identical twins is only 50%, not 100%.

EP 7b

41 Understand the Medical Model Approach and the Ecological Approach

EXERCISE 2.3 Understanding the Major Mental Disorders

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in understanding the major mental disorders. Briefly describe several people you
know who have the mental disorders identified in Table 2.1. For confidentiality reasons, do not use the real names of the people.

The following is an example of a desired brief description. Fred, age 67, was diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease 5 years ago. He
is now in an assisted-living facility. His wife visits him nearly every day.

Ecological Model
In the 1960s, social work began questioning the usefulness of the medical model. Environ-
mental factors were shown to be at least as important in causing a client’s problems as inter-
nal factors. Research also was demonstrating that psychoanalysis was probably ineffective
in treating clients’ problems.12

Then social work shifted at least some of its emphasis to a reform approach that seeks
to change systems to benefit clients. The enactment of the antipoverty programs, such as
Head Start, is an example of a successful reform approach.

In the past several years, social work has focused on using an ecological approach.
This approach integrates both treatment and reform by conceptualizing and emphasizing
the dysfunctional transactions between people and their physical and social environments.
Human beings are known to develop and adapt through transactions with all elements of
their environments. An ecological model gives attention to both internal and external fac-
tors. It does not view people as passive reactors to their environments, but rather as active
participants in dynamic and reciprocal interactions.

It tries to improve the coping patterns of people in their environments to obtain a bet-
ter match between an individual’s needs and the characteristics of his or her environment.
One emphasis of an ecological model is on the person-in-environment, which is conceptu-
alized in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 suggests that people interact with many systems. With this conceptualiza-
tion, social work can focus on three separate areas. First, it can focus on the person and seek
to develop problem-solving, coping, and developmental capacities. Second, it can focus on
the relationship between a person and the systems he or she interacts with and link the per-
son with needed resources, services, and opportunities. Third, it can focus on the systems
and seek to reform them to meet the needs of the individual more effectively.

The ecological model views individuals, families, and small groups as having transi-
tional problems and needs as they move from one life stage to another. Individuals face
many transitional changes as they grow older, such as learning to walk, entering first grade,
adjusting to puberty, graduating from school, finding a job, getting married, having chil-
dren, children leaving home, and retiring.

CHAPTER 2: Social Group Work and Social Work Practice 42

NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS include, but are not
limited to, intellectual disabilities (sometimes called cognitive
disabilities), communication disorders (such as language disor-
der), autism spectrum disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder, specific learning disorder (such as impairment in read-
ing), and motor disorders (such as developmental coordina-
tion disorder, stereotypic movement disorder, and Tourette’s
disorder).

SCHIZOPHRENIA SPECTRUM AND OTHER PSYCHOTIC DISOR-
DERS include, but are not limited to, schizotypal (personality)
disorder, delusional disorder, schizophrenia, schizoaffective
disorder, and catatonic disorder.

BIPOLAR AND RELATED DISORDERS include, but are not limited
to, bipolar I disorder, bipolar II disorder, and cyclothymic
disorder.

DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS include, but are not limited to, disrup-
tive mood dysregulation disorder (such as major depressive
disorder), persistent depressive disorder, and premenstrual
dysphoric disorder.

ANXIETY DISORDERS include separation anxiety disorder, spe-
cific phobia (such as fear of injections and transfusions), social
anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and agoraphobia.

OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE AND RELATED DISORDERS include
obsessive-compulsive disorder, hoarding disorder, trichotil-
lomania (hair-pulling disorder), and excoriation (skin-picking)
disorder.

TRAUMA- AND STRESSOR-RELATED DISORDERS include reactive
attachment disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and acute
stress disorder.

DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS include dissociative identity disorder
and dissociative amnesia.

SOMATIC SYMPTOM AND RELATED DISORDERS include somatic
symptom disorder, illness anxiety disorder, and factitious disor-
der (includes factitious disorder imposed on self and factitious
disorder imposed on another).

FEEDING AND EATING DISORDERS include pica, rumination
disorder, avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder, anorexia
nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder.

ELIMINATION DISORDERS include enuresis and encopresis.

SLEEP-WAKE DISORDERS include insomnia disorder, hyper-
somnolence disorder, narcolepsy, breathing-related sleep
disorders (such as central sleep apnea), and parasomnias
(such as sleepwalking type, sleep terror type, nightmare dis-
order, rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder, restless
legs syndrome, and substance/medication-induced sleep
disorder).

SEXUAL DYSFUNCTIONS include delayed ejaculation, erectile
disorder, female orgasmic disorder, female sexual interest/

arousal disorder, genitopelvic pain/penetration disorder,
male hypoactive sexual desire disorder, and premature (early)
ejaculation.

GENDER DYSPHORIA includes gender dysphoria.

DISRUPTIVE, IMPULSE-CONTROL, AND CONDUCT DISORDERS
include oppositional defiant disorder, intermittent explosive
disorder, conduct disorder, antisocial personality disorder, pyro-
mania, and kleptomania.

SUBSTANCE-RELATED AND ADDICTIVE DISORDERS include
alcohol-related disorders (such as alcohol use disorder and
alcohol intoxication); caffeine-related disorders (such as caf-
feine intoxication); cannabis-related disorder (such as cannabis
use disorder and cannabis intoxication); hallucinogen-related
disorders; inhalant-related disorders; opioid-related disorders;
sedative-, hypnotic-, or anxiolytic-related disorders; stimulant-
related disorders (such as cocaine abuse); tobacco-related dis-
orders; and non-substance-related disorders (such as gambling
disorders).

NEUROCOGNITIVE DISORDERS include delirium and major and
mild neurocognitive disorders (such as Alzheimer’s disease, vas-
cular disease, traumatic brain injury, substance/medication use,
HIV infection, Parkinson’s disease, and Huntington’s disease).

PERSONALITY DISORDERS include paranoid personality
disorder, schizoid personality disorder, schizotypal person-
ality disorder, antisocial personality disorder, borderline
personality disorder, histrionic personality disorder, narcis-
sistic personality disorder, avoidant personality disorder,
dependent personality disorder, and obsessive-compulsive
personality disorder.

PARAPHILIC DISORDERS include voyeuristic disorder, exhibi-
tionistic disorder, frotteuristic disorder (such as recurrent sexual
arousal from touching or rubbing against a nonconsenting
person), sexual masochism disorder, sexual sadism disorder,
fetishistic disorder, and transvestic disorder.

OTHER MENTAL DISORDERS include mental disorders due to
another medical condition.

MEDICATION-INDUCED MOVEMENT DISORDERS AND OTHER
ADVERSE EFFECTS OF MEDICATION include neuroleptic-
induced parkinsonism and medication-induced acute dystonia.

OTHER CONDITIONS THAT MAY BE A FOCUS OF CLINICAL
ATTENTION include relational problems (such as parent-child
relational problems), abuse and neglect (such as child abuse
and neglect, child sexual abuse, child psychological abuse,
spouse or partner violence or neglect, and adult abuse by non-
spouse), educational and occupational problems, housing and
economic problems (such as homelessness), problems related
to crime or interaction with the legal system, religious or spiri-
tual problems, victim of terrorism or torture, personal history
of military deployment, and overweight or obesity.

TABLE 2.1 Major Mental Disorders According to
the American Psychiatric Association

SOURCE: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition by the American Psychiatric Association, 2013, Washington, DC: American
Psychiatric Association.

43 Understand the Medical Model Approach and the Ecological Approach

Families have a life cycle of events that also require adjustment, including engagement,
marriage, birth of children, parenting, children going to school, children leaving home, and
loss of a parent (perhaps through death or divorce).

In addition, small groups have transitional phases of development. Members of small
groups spend time getting acquainted, gradually learn to trust each other, begin to self-
disclose more, learn to work together on tasks, develop approaches to handle interpersonal
conflict, and face adjustments to the group’s eventual termination or the departure of some
members.

A central concern of an ecological model is to articulate the transitional problems and
needs of individuals, families, and small groups. Once these problems and needs are identi-
fied, intervention approaches are then selected and applied to help individuals, families,
and small groups resolve the transitional problems and meet their needs.

An ecological model can also focus on the maladaptive interpersonal problems and
needs in families and groups. It can seek to articulate the maladaptive communication
processes and dysfunctional relationship patterns of families and small groups. These
difficulties cover an array of areas, including interpersonal conflicts, power struggles,
double binds, distortions in communicating, scapegoating, and discrimination. The
consequences of such difficulties are usually maladaptive for some members. An eco-
logical model seeks to identify such interpersonal obstacles and then apply appropriate
intervention strategies. For example, parents may set the price for honesty too high
for their children. In such families, children gradually learn to hide certain behaviors
and thoughts, and even learn to lie. If the parents discover such dishonesty, an uproar
usually occurs. An appropriate intervention in such a family is to open up communi-
cation patterns and help the parents understand that if they really want honesty from
their children, they need to learn to be more accepting of their children’s thoughts and
actions.

FIGURE 2.2 Person-in-Environment Conceptualization

People in society continually interact with many systems, some of which are shown in this
figure.

PERSON

Political
system

Goods and
services systems

Family
system

Social service
system

Religious
system

Employment
system

Educational
system

CHAPTER 2: Social Group Work and Social Work Practice 44

Two centuries ago, people interacted primarily within the family system. Families were
nearly self-sufficient. In those days, the person-in-family was a way of conceptualizing
the main system for individuals to interact. Our society has become much more complex.
Today, a person’s life and quality of life are interwoven and interdependent upon many
systems, as shown in Figure 2.2.

LO 3 Specify the Goals of Social Work Practice

GOALS OF SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
The NASW has conceptualized social work practice as having four major goals.13

Goal 1: Enhance the Clients’ Problem-Solving,
Coping, and Developmental Capacities
Using the person-in-environment concept, the focus of social work practice at this level
is on the “person.” With this focus, a social worker serves primarily as an enabler. In the
role of an enabler, the worker may take on activities of a counselor, teacher, caregiver
(that is, providing supportive services to those who cannot fully solve their problems
and meet their own needs), and behavior changer (that is, changing specific parts of a
client’s behavior).

Goal 2: Link Clients with Systems that Provide
Resources, Services, and Opportunities
Using the person-in-environment concept, the focus of social work practice at this level is
on the relationships between persons and the systems with which they interact. With this
focus, a social worker serves primarily as a broker.

EXERCISE 2.4 Understanding the Medical Model
and the Ecological Model

GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you understand the medical model and the ecological model.

In understanding why people become involved in dysfunctional behavior (such as being anorexic, committing a crime, or be-
coming a batterer), which model (the medical model or the ecological model) do you believe is more useful? State the reasons
for your choice.

45 Specify the Goals of Social Work Practice

Goal 3: Promote the Effective and Humane Operation
of Systems that Provide Resources and Services
Using the person-in-environment concept, the focus of social work practice at this level
is on the systems people interact with. One role a worker may fill at this level is that of an
advocate. Additional roles at this level are the following:

A program developer seeks to promote or design programs or technologies to meet
social needs.

A supervisor seeks to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the delivery of ser-
vices through supervising other staff.

A coordinator seeks to improve a delivery system through increasing communica-
tions and coordination among human service resources.

A consultant seeks to provide guidance to agencies and organizations through sug-
gesting ways to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of services.

Goal 4: Develop and Improve Social Policy
The focus of Goal 4 is on the statutes and broader social policies that underlie available
resources. Major roles of social workers at this level are planner and policy developer.
In these roles, workers develop and seek adoption of new statutes or policies and propose
elimination of ineffective or inappropriate statutes and policies. In these planning and
policy development processes, social workers may take on an advocate role and, in some
instances, an activist role.

The Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) is the national accrediting body for
social work education in the United States. It describes the purpose of social work as follows
(CSWE, 2015):

The purpose of the social work profession is to promote human and community
well-being. Guided by a person-in-environment framework, a global perspective, respect
for human diversity, and knowledge based on scientific inquiry, the purpose of social work
is actualized through its quest for social and economic justice, the prevention of conditions
that limit human rights, the elimination of poverty, and the enhancement of the quality of
life for all persons, locally and globally.14

This description of the purpose of social work is consistent with the four goals of social
work mentioned earlier. However, it adds one more goal, as follows.

Goal 5: Promote Human and Community Well-Being
The social work profession is committed to enhancing the well-being of all human
beings and to promoting community well-being. It is particularly committed to alle-
viating poverty, oppression, and other forms of social injustice. About 15% of the U.S.
population has an income below the poverty line. Social work has always advocated for
developing programs to alleviate poverty, and many practitioners focus on providing ser-
vices to the poor.

Poverty is global; every society has members who are poor. In some societies, as
much as 95% of the population lives in poverty. Social workers are committed to alle-
viating poverty not only in the United States but also worldwide. Alleviating poverty is
obviously complex and difficult. Social work professionals work with a variety of systems
to make progress in alleviating poverty, including educational systems, healthcare sys-
tems, political systems, business and employment systems, religious systems, and human
services systems.

Oppression is the unjust or cruel exercise of authority or power. In our society,
numerous groups have been oppressed—including African Americans, Latinos, Chinese
Americans, Native Americans, women, persons with disabilities, gays and lesbians, vari-
ous religious groups, and people living in poverty. (The listing of these groups is only
illustrative and certainly not exhaustive.) Social injustice occurs when some members

CHAPTER 2: Social Group Work and Social Work Practice 46

of a society have less protection, fewer basic rights and opportunities, or fewer social
benefits than other members of that society. Social work is a profession that is commit-
ted not only to alleviating poverty but also to combating oppression and other forms of
social injustice.

Social justice is an ideal condition in which all members of a society have
the same basic rights, protection, opportunities, obligations, and social benefits.
Economic justice is also an ideal condition in which all members of a society have the
same opportunities to attain material goods, income, and wealth. Social workers have
an obligation to help groups at risk increase their personal, interpersonal, socioeco-
nomic, and political strength and influence through improving their circumstances.
Empowerment-focused social workers seek a more equitable distribution of resources
and power among the various groups in society. Diverse groups that may be at risk
include those distinguished by “age, class, color, culture, disability and ability, ethnic-
ity, gender, gender identity and expression, immigration status, marital status, politi-
cal ideology, race, religion/spirituality, sex, sexual orientation, and tribal sovereign
status.”15

EXERCISE 2.5 Your Interest in Achieving the
Goals of Social Work

GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you identify your interest in the activities associated with the five goals of social work.

1. Check the boxes that identify your interest level in each of the five goals of social work.

2. For goals in which you are “Highly interested,” state the reasons for your decisions.

3. For goals in which you are “Somewhat disinterested” or “Not interested,” state the reasons for your decisions.

Highly
Interested

Somewhat
Interested Uncertain

Somewhat
Disinterested Not Interested

Goal 1

Goal 2

Goal 3

Goal 4

Goal 5

47 Understanding the Strengths Perspective in Working with Clients

A PROBLEM-SOLVING APPROACH
In working with individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities, social work-
ers use a problem-solving approach. Steps in the problem-solving process can be stated in a
variety of ways. The following is a simple statement of this process:

1. Identify as precisely as possible the problem or problems.
2. Generate possible alternative solutions.
3. Evaluate the alternative solutions.
4. Select a solution or solutions, and set goals.
5. Implement the solution(s).
6. Follow up to evaluate how the solution(s) worked.

LO 4 Understanding the Strengths Perspective
in Working with Clients

STRENGTHS PERSPECTIVE
The strengths perspective seeks to identify, use, build on, and reinforce the abilities and
strengths that people have, in contrast to the pathological perspective, which focuses on
their deficiencies. It emphasizes people’s abilities, interests, aspirations, resources, beliefs,
and accomplishments. For example, strengths of African Americans in the United States
are found in more than 100 predominantly African American colleges and universities;
fraternal and women’s organizations; and social, political, and professional organizations.
Many of the schools, businesses, churches, and organizations that are predominantly
African American have developed social service programs, such as family support services,
mentoring programs, food and shelter services, transportation services, and educational
and scholarship programs. Through individual and organized efforts, self-help approaches

EP 7b
EP 8b
EP 9b

EXERCISE 2.6 Applying the Problem-Solving Approach

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in applying the problem-solving approach.

Describe a dilemma that you faced (or are currently facing) in which you used the six stages of the problem-solving approach.
In your description, describe what you did for each of the six stages.

CHAPTER 2: Social Group Work and Social Work Practice 48

and mutual aid traditions continue among African Americans. African Americans tend to
have strong ties to immediate, extended family. They tend to have a strong religious orienta-
tion, a strong work and achievement orientation, and a belief in egalitarian role sharing.16

According to Saleebey,17 five principles underlie the guiding assumptions of the
strengths perspective:

1. Every individual, group, family, and community has strengths. The strengths perspec-
tive is about discerning these resources. Saleebey notes:

In the end, clients want to know that you actually care about them, that how they fare
makes a difference to you, that you will listen to them, that you will respect them no
matter what their history, and that you believe that they can build something of value
with the resources within and around them. But most of all, clients want to know that
you believe they can surmount adversity and begin the climb toward transformation
and growth (p. 12).18

2. Trauma, abuse, illness, and struggle may be injurious, but they may also be sources of
challenge and opportunity. Clients who have been victimized are seen as active and
developing individuals who, through their traumas, learn skills and develop personal
attributes that assist them in coping with future struggles. There is dignity to be found
in having prevailed over obstacles. We often grow more from crises that we find ways
to handle effectively than from periods of time in our lives when we are content and
comfortable.

3. Assume that you do not know the upper limits of the capacity to grow and change,
and take individual, group, and community aspirations seriously. This principle
means workers need to hold high their expectations of clients and form alliances
with their visions, hopes, and values. Individuals, families, and communities have
the capacity for restoration and rebounding. When workers connect with the hopes
and dreams of clients, clients are apt to have greater faith in themselves. Then they
are able to put forth the effort needed for their hopes and dreams to become self-
fulfilling prophecies.

4. We best serve clients by collaborating with them. A worker is more effective when seen
by the client as a collaborator or consultant rather than as an expert or a professional.
A collaborative stance by a worker makes her or him less vulnerable to many of the
adverse effects of an expert-inferior relationship, including paternalism, victim blam-
ing, and preemption of client views.

5. Every environment is full of resources. In every environment (no matter how harsh),
there are individuals, groups, associations, and institutions with something to give,
and with something that others may desperately need. The strengths perspective
seeks to identify these resources and make them available to benefit individuals, fami-
lies, and groups in a community.

Most social workers now recognize the importance of the strengths perspective in
working with clients. If workers only focus on the shortcomings, weaknesses, deficiencies,
and problems of clients, those clients are apt to lose their self-esteem and sense of worth.
They are apt to view themselves as “losers” and give up trying to improve their lives. Once
they give up trying, it will be a self-fulfilling prophecy that they will have no chance of
becoming self-sufficient. They will live a life of being dependent on society for “handouts.”

On the other hand, if workers treat clients as “equals” and work with them to help
them identify their strengths and resources, these clients will more readily realize they have
self-worth and that they have the capacities to improve their lives and to improve the lives
of their family members. The old adage of the “fish story” is important to remember. If we
give a hungry family fish, we feed them for a day. If we teach them how to fish, we feed them
for a lifetime!

Expanding on this analogy, if a worker is assigned to work with a family who is in
extreme poverty and the worker only arranges to have that family receive a monthly check
to meet subsistence needs, those family members are apt to view themselves as “losers” and

49 Understanding the Strengths Perspective in Working with Clients

become chronically dependent on the government. On the other hand, if the worker helps
these family members identify their strengths (such as helping them to recognize their apti-
tudes for certain jobs and links them to job training programs), the family members are apt
to have an improving sense of worth and gradually obtain gainful employment and become
productive members in society. (It should be noted that the worker involved with this fam-
ily also needs to help the family deal with other barriers that the family may face, such as
issues with child care, access to quality healthcare, alcohol or other drug abuse issues, anger
management issues, and transportation issues.)

A few additional case examples of the powerful impacts of the strengths perspective
will be mentioned. Several years ago I was the faculty supervisor for an intern in a child
protective services unit at a human services agency. The field supervisor recommended a
final grade of “A+”, praising the following skills of the intern: building a relationship with
clients, problem solving, writing case reports, empathy, and testifying in court. Later that
day I met with the intern on a one-to-one basis. I praised the intern for excelling and asked
her what led to her doing so well, as she averaged “B” grades in her social work courses and
in her general education courses. Her answer brought tears to my eyes and underscored the
importance of the strengths perspective. Her response was as follows. “I never told you this,
as I don’t want anyone to feel sorry for me. I have a learning disability known as dyslexia.
(Dyslexia is a reading disorder, which also affects writing, spelling, and sometimes speak-
ing. people with dyslexia include Steven Spielberg and Whoopi Goldberg.) I had major
trouble in learning to read; when I was in the third grade, I was reading only at a first grade
level. I was sent to the school social worker for an evaluation. The social worker noted I
had the strengths of being highly motivated to learn to read and that I was working very
hard to learn to do so in school and at home. This social worker referred me to the school
psychologist, who tested me and discovered I was dyslexic. In this third grade some teach-
ers were advocating that I be placed in Special Ed courses. I did not want the stigma that is
attached to being a Special Ed child. This social worker made a major difference in my life.
She arranged for me to have a tutor who was skilled in working with children with a learn-
ing disability. The worker also met with my parents who were very supportive of me and
instructed them in how they could help me better learn to read. This social worker made
a major difference in my life; she is the reason I chose to major in social work and become
a social worker: In my classes in elementary school, middle school, high school, and col-
lege, I have always had to work harder than most other students. At this college I have also
received services from the students with a Disability unit. I think my experience with over-
coming dyslexia has facilitated me in empathizing and working with the clients that were
assigned to me in field placement.”

The following is another example. Stevie Wonder has been among the most influential
Black music artists over the past five decades.19 He is a songwriter, producer, singer, and
musician. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1989. He was born
Steveland Judkins on May 13, 1950, in Saginaw, Michigan. When born, he was suffering
from retinopathy of prematurity, which eventually caused his retina to detach, resulting in
his blindness. With the support and encouragement of his parents, he learned to play the
piano at the age of 7. By the age of 9, he had also mastered playing drums and harmonica.
After his family moved to Detroit in 1954, he joined a church choir and began to develop
his singing potential. In 1961, at the age of 11, Stevie was discovered by Ronnie White of the
group The Miracles, who arranged an audition at Motown Records. Almost immediately he
was signed by Berry Gordy to Motown Records. Clarence Paul came up with the “Wonder”
surname, as Stevie at the time was being introduced as the “8th Wonder of the World.”
Clarence Paul also supervised his early recordings and helped him develop his singing tal-
ents and his talents as a multi-instrumentalist. Why did Stevie Wonder become one of our
country’s greatest entertainers? He certainly was born with immense musical potential. But
he also had supportive parents and a number of mentors and advisers who recognized this
potential and who helped him develop it.

Another person who excelled because of the strengths perspective is Temple Grandin.20
She was born August 29, 1947. She did not begin to speak until she was nearly 4 years old.

CHAPTER 2: Social Group Work and Social Work Practice 50

Instead, she communicated her frustrations by screaming. At 3 years old she was labeled
autistic, and doctors told her parents that she should be institutionalized.

Grandin’s mother spoke to a doctor who suggested speech therapy. The mother
hired a nanny who spent hours playing games with Grandin and her sister. At age 4,
Grandin began talking and making developmental progress. Grandin considers herself
lucky to have had a supportive mother and supportive mentors from primary school
onwards.

Temple Grandin graduated from Hampshire Country School, a boarding school in
New Hampshire, in 1966. She earned her bachelor’s degree in psychology from Franklin
Pierce College in 1970, she received her master’s degree in animal science from Arizona
State University in 1975, and she received her doctoral degree in animal science in 1989
from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. She is a professor at Colorado State
University.

She is a philosophical leader of both animal welfare and autism advocacy movements.
Grandin advocates early interventions to address autism, as well as supportive teachers who
can direct the fixations of autistic children in fruitful directions.

She is a best-selling author on animal welfare and autism. She is an inventor of
a number of livestock-handling facilities that keep cattle calm and prevent them from
getting hurt.

Temple Grandin’s life story illustrates that no one should be stereotyped as having “no
hope for the future” because of receiving a physical/mental disability diagnosis, such as that
of autism. She had supportive people in her early years (mother, teachers, mentors) who
helped her focus on her strengths, rather than her limitations.

EXERCISE 2.7 The Strengths Perspective Applied
to a Homeless Family

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in applying the strengths perspective to a case.

1. Read the following case scenario:

Ms. Hull was recently evicted from her two-bedroom apartment. She had been working at a small business that did
not offer health insurance coverage to her. She is a single mother with three children, ages 7, 9, and 10. She developed
pneumonia that hung on because she could not pay to see a physician. The small business experienced financial prob-
lems, and her employment was terminated. She has been seeking another job but has not found one. She wants a job
that has health benefits. Unable to pay rent, she was evicted from her apartment. She cares a lot for her children, and
they display respect for her. The children are all doing well in school. Ms. Hull and her children lived on the street for
3 days and nights but then located a homeless shelter at the Salvation Army. They have been at the homeless shelter for
the past 2½ weeks. The children are fairly healthy and are respectful of the services they are receiving from the shelter.
Ms. Hull has largely recovered from her pneumonia, partly because of the physician’s visit she asked the Salvation Army
to arrange for her.

2. List the strengths that you identify in this family.

51 Understanding the Strengths Perspective in Working with Clients

MICRO, MEZZO, AND MACRO PRACTICE
Social workers practice at three levels: (1) micro—working on a one-to-one basis with an
individual, (2) mezzo—working with families and other small groups, and (3) macro—working
with organizations and communities or seeking changes in statutes and social policies.

The specific activities performed by workers include, but are not limited to, the
following.

Social Casework
Aimed at helping individuals on a one-to-one basis meet personal and social problems,
casework may be geared to helping the client adjust to his or her environment or to changing
certain social and economic pressures that adversely affect an individual. Social casework
services are provided by nearly every social welfare agency that provides direct services
to people. Social casework encompasses a wide variety of activities, such as counseling
runaway youths, helping unemployed people secure training or employment, counseling
someone who is suicidal, placing a homeless child in an adoptive or foster home, providing
protective services to abused children and their families, finding nursing homes for stroke
victims who no longer need to be confined to a hospital, counseling individuals with sexual
dysfunctions, helping alcoholics acknowledge they have a drinking problem, counseling
those with a terminal illness, being a probation and parole officer, providing services to
single parents, and working in medical and mental hospitals as a member of a rehabilita-
tion team.

Case Management
Recently, some social service agencies have labeled their social workers case managers.
The tasks performed by case managers are similar to those of caseworkers. The job descrip-
tions of case managers vary from service area to service area. For example, case managers
in a juvenile probation setting are highly involved in supervising clients, providing some
counseling, monitoring clients to make certain they are following the rules of probation,

EP 8b

You Can’t Be an Effective Direct Practice Worker
without Being a Competent Group Worker

I have been mentoring adjunct faculty for the past three
decades. I have informed the adjunct faculty that they need
to hone their teaching skills by valuing and utilizing a wide
variety of group work skills. I firmly believe that an effective
instructor in social work education (BSW programs, MSW pro-
grams, and doctoral programs) needs to be a skilled group
worker. An effective instructor has to be skilled at effectively
using the following group work skills: establishing profes-
sional relationships; being a servant leader (see Chapter 3);
respect for diversity; problem solving; inspiring members to
be all that they can be; the strengths perspective; facilitat-
ing discussions; being culturally competent; having skills at
conflict resolution and handling disruptive members; setting
group norms; creating a cooperative atmosphere; setting rel-
evant objectives and assessing the extent to which members
are attaining these objectives; adhering to social work ethics,
including confidentiality and professional boundaries; being
empathic; being perceptive; and setting realistic goals with
members.

As you reflect on these skills, is it not accurate that your
most effective and popular social work instructors were those
who were highly effective group work leaders?

As I reflect on the importance of an effective social work
instructor having a wide variety of group work skills, the fol-
lowing corollary appears evident. An effective direct practice
worker (including one who works on a one-to-one basis with
clients) needs to have command of a variety of group work
skills. An effective direct practice worker has to be skilled at
using the following group work skills: establishing professional
relationships; being a servant leader; respect for diversity; prob-
lem solving; inspiring individuals to be all that they can be; the
strengths perspective; facilitating discussions; being culturally
competent; having skills at conflict resolution and handling dis-
gruntled individuals; setting norms for proceeding; creating a
cooperative atmosphere; setting relevant goals and assessing
the extent to which clients are attaining these goals; adhering
to social work ethics, including confidentiality and professional
boundaries; being empathic; and being perceptive.

CHAPTER 2: Social Group Work and Social Work Practice 52

linking clients and their families with needed services, preparing court reports, and testify-
ing in court. On the other hand, case managers at a rehabilitation center for people with
a cognitive disability are apt to be involved in providing job training to clients, counseling
clients, arranging transportation, disciplining clients for unacceptable behavior, acting as
an advocate for clients, and acting as liaison with the people who supervise clients during
their nonwork hours (at a group home, foster home, residential treatment facility, or their
parents’ home). Hepworth and Larsen describe the role of a case manager as follows:

Case managers link clients to needed resources that exist in complex service delivery net-
works and orchestrate the delivery of services in a timely fashion. Case managers function
as brokers, facilitators, linkers, mediators, and advocates. A case manager must have exten-
sive knowledge of community resources, rights of clients, and policies and procedures of
various agencies, and must be skillful in mediation and advocacy.21

Group Work
The intellectual, emotional, and social development of individuals may be furthered through
group activities. In contrast to casework or group therapy, it is not primarily therapeutic,
except in a broad sense. Different groups have different objectives, such as socialization,
information exchange, curbing delinquency, recreation, changing socially unacceptable

A Social Worker as a Dream Manager

Some clients do not want anything to do with a social worker,
psychologist, psychiatrist, or other similar professional
because they do not want to listen to the “psycho-babble.”
They view themselves as above going to a “shrink.” Is there a
way for a counselor to break through this “resistance”? Mathew
Kelly suggests there may be a way, by being a “dream man-
ager.” The following is a brief description of this approach.

Matthew Kelly, an internationally known speaker and
author, wrote the book The Dream Manager.a The essence of
The Dream Manager is that a company can achieve remark-
able results by helping its employees fulfill their dreams.
Kelly believes each person has a dream. He believes that it
is the dream that defines a person’s frame of mind. (I will use
“her” for the pronoun in this context.) Her dream, or dreams,
defines her attitude toward life, her personality, her future
aspirations, and her goals. We, hopefully, become our
dreams. If we do not attain our dreams, we feel unfulfilled,
empty, frustrated, and depressed. Helping people chase and
fulfill their dreams should be the primary focus of all relation-
ships—whether that relationship is between husband and
wife, employer and employee, salesperson and customer,
real estate agent and potential buyer, parent and child, or
social worker and client.

In the book, Kelly asserts we can reach our dreams if we
help other people reach theirs. (Is that not the essence of why
people pursue a career in social work?) Our dreams tell us not
only what sort of person we are today, but also what sort of
person we aspire to be in the tomorrows of our lives. Is not
the link between the private dreams of a person who is work-
ing for an employer closely linked to the satisfaction level of
working for that employer? The more that a person believes

she is achieving her dreams in working with an agency/com-
pany, the greater the satisfaction level she will have with work-
ing for that agency/company. And this analogy applies for all
relationships. The more that a partner in a romantic relation-
ship feels she is attaining her dreams in that relationship, the
more she will be committed to improving that relationship.
The more a client feels that she is identifying and attaining her
dreams with her social worker, the more she will be committed
to working with that social worker.

We need all kinds of help and encouragement to remain
connected to our dreams; otherwise, we lose the motivation
to work on making progress. Kelly asserts that companies with
high levels of worker satisfaction are those in which the man-
agement focuses on helping employees identify and realize
their dreams within that company. A high degree of employee
satisfaction is a major factor in a company advancing.

Applying this analogy to the relationship between a social
worker and a client, is it not accurate that for a resistant client,
the more a social worker can help that client identify her
dreams, and then attain her dreams, the greater the likelihood
that that client will form a constructive relationship with her
social worker, and the more motivated she will be to work on
improving her life—as she simultaneously works on attaining
her dreams?

With, a number of clients who are resistant to working with
a “shrink” (and in fact for any client), might it not be valuable
to reframe the description of the role of a social worker to the
client as being that of “a dream manager”?

a. Matthew Kelly, The Dream Manager (New York: Beacon
Publishing, 2007).

53 Understanding the Strengths Perspective in Working with Clients

values, and helping achieve better relations between cultural and racial groups. For
example, a group worker at a neighborhood center may, through group activities, seek to
curb delinquency patterns and change socially unacceptable values; or a worker at an adop-
tion agency may meet with a group of applicants to explain adoption procedures and help
applicants prepare to become adoptive parents. Activities and focuses of groups vary: arts
and crafts; dancing; games; dramatics; music; photography; sports; nature study; wood-
work; first aid; home management; information exchange; and discussion of such topics as
politics, sex, marriage, religion, and career selection.

Group Treatment
Group treatment is aimed at facilitating the social, behavioral, and emotional adjustment of
individuals through the group process. Participants in group treatment usually have emo-
tional, interactional, or behavioral difficulties. Group treatment has several advantages over
one-to-one counseling, such as the operation of the helper therapy principle, which main-
tains it is therapeutic for the helper (who can be any member of a group) to feel he or she has
been helpful to others.22 In contrast to one-to-one counseling, group pressure is often more
effective in changing maladaptive behavior of individuals, and group treatment is a time saver
as it enables the therapist to treat several people at the same time. A few examples in which
group treatment might be used are for individuals who are severely depressed, have drinking
problems, are victims of a rape, are psychologically addicted to drugs, have a relative who is
terminally ill, are single and pregnant, are recently divorced, or have an eating disorder.

Additional advantages of group treatment over one-to-one treatment include:

● Feedback—A member with a personal challenge receives multiple types of feedback
from a variety of perspectives from other members.

● Vicarious learning—Each member learns by hearing about other members’ coping
strategies.

● Social support—Members receive support from one another.
● Resources—A wide pool of knowledge about services and resources is shared among

members involving their concerns.
● Practice of new behaviors—Other members provide opportunities to try out new

behaviors in the safe environment of the group. For example, a member who is shy
can try out more assertive responses.

● Hope—A member with current challenges is inspired with hope by hearing how
other members have coped effectively with similar situations.

Family Treatment
A type of group treatment aimed at helping families with interactional, behavioral, and
emotional problems, family treatment can be used with parent-child interaction problems,
marital conflicts, and conflicts with grandparents. Widely varying problems are dealt with
in family treatment or family counseling, such as disagreements between parents and youths
on choice of friends and dates, drinking and other drug use, domestic tasks, curfew hours,
communication problems, sexual values and behavior, study habits, and grades received.

Community Organization
The aim of community organization is to stimulate and assist the local community to evalu-
ate, plan, and coordinate efforts to provide for the community’s health, welfare, and rec-
reation needs. It is perhaps not possible to define precisely the activities of a community
organizer, but such activities are apt to include encouraging and fostering citizen participa-
tion, coordinating efforts between agencies or between groups, public relations and public
education, research, planning, and resource management. A community organizer acts as
a catalyst in stimulating and encouraging community action. Agency settings where such
specialists are apt to be employed include community welfare councils, social planning
agencies, health planning councils, and community action agencies. The term community
organization is now being replaced in some settings by such labels as planning, social
planning, program development, policy development, and macro practice.

CHAPTER 2: Social Group Work and Social Work Practice 54

Barker defines community organization as:

An intervention process used by social workers and other professionals to help individuals,
groups, and collectives of people with common interests or from the same geographic areas
to deal with social problems and to enhance social well-being through planned collective
action. Methods include identifying problem areas, analyzing causes, formulating plans,
developing strategies, mobilizing necessary resources, identifying and recruiting commu-
nity leaders, and encouraging interrelationships between them to facilitate their effors.23

Policy Analysis
Policy analysis involves the systematic evaluation of a policy and the process by which it
was formulated. Those who conduct such an analysis consider whether the process and
the result are clear, equitable, legal, rational, compatible with social values, superior to the

EXERCISE 2.8 Identifying Your Interest in Various
Social Work Activities

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in identifying the types of social work responsibilities that you want to pursue.

1. For each of the following activities, check the box that indicates your level of interest in engaging in it.

2. For the activities that you checked “Highly interested,” state the reasons for your selections.

3. For the activities that you checked “Somewhat disinterested” or “Not interested,” state the reasons for your selections.

Highly
Interested

Somewhat
Interested Uncertain

Somewhat
Disinterested Not Interested

1. Social casework

2. Case management

3. Group work

4. Group treatment

5. Family treatment

6. Community organization

7. Policy analysis

8. Administration

55 Understand the Conceptualization of Social Work Practice

alternatives, cost effective, and explicit. Frequently such an analysis identifies certain short-
comings in the policy, and those conducting the policy analysis then usually recommend
modifications designed to alleviate these shortcomings.

Administration
Administration is the activity that involves directing the overall program of a social
service agency. Administrative functions include setting agency and program objectives,
analyzing social conditions in the community, making decisions relating to what services
will be provided, employing and supervising staff members, setting up an organizational
structure, administering financial affairs, and securing funds for the agency’s operations.
Administration also involves setting organizational goals, coordinating activities toward
the achievement of selected goals, and making and monitoring necessary changes in
processes and structure to improve effectiveness and efficiency. In social work, the
term administration is often used synonymously with management. In a small agency,
administrative functions may be carried out by one person, whereas in a larger agency
several people may be involved in administrative affairs.

Other areas of professional activity in social work include research, consulting, supervi-
sion, planning, program development, and teaching (primarily at the college level). The abil-
ity to study and evaluate one’s own practice and to evaluate programs is an important skill
for a social worker. Skills essential for social work practice are described further in the next
section. Generalist social workers are expected to have an extensive knowledge base, to pos-
sess numerous skills, and to adhere to a well-defined set of professional social work values.

LO 5 Understand the Conceptualization of Social Work
Practice that Is Presented in the Educational
Policy Statement of the Council on Social Work
Education for Baccalaureate Degree Programs
and Master’s Degree Programs in Social Work

KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, AND VALUES NEEDED
FOR SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
In Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS), the Council on Social Work
Education (2015) identified knowledge, skills, values, and cognitive and affective processes
that accredited baccalaureate and master’s degree programs are mandated to convey to
social work students. EPAS is based on a competency approach. The following material is
reprinted with permission from Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards.24

The mandated content that BSW and MSW programs are required to provide to stu-
dents are summarized in the following nine competencies.

Social Work Competencies
The nine social work competencies are listed in the following sections. Programs may add
competencies that are consistent with their mission and goals and that respond to their
context. Each competency describes the knowledge, values, skills, and cognitive and affec-
tive processes that comprise the competency at the generalist level of practice, followed by
a set of behaviors that integrate these components. These behaviors represent observable
components of the competencies, and the preceding statements represent the underlying
content and processes that inform the behaviors.

Competency 1–Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior Social workers
understand the value base of the profession and its ethical standards, as well as relevant
laws and regulations that may affect practice at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels. Social
workers understand frameworks of ethical decision making and how to apply principles

EP 1a
through

EP 9d

CHAPTER 2: Social Group Work and Social Work Practice 56

of critical thinking to those frameworks in practice, research, and policy arenas. Social
workers recognize personal values and the distinction between personal and professional
values. They also understand how their personal experiences and affective reactions influ-
ence their professional judgment and behavior. Social workers understand the profession’s
history, its mission, and the roles and responsibilities of the profession. Social workers also
understand the role of other professions when engaged in interprofessional teams. Social
workers recognize the importance of lifelong learning and are committed to continually up-
dating their skills to ensure they are relevant and effective. Social workers also understand
emerging forms of technology and the ethical use of technology in social work practice.
Social workers:

● make ethical decisions by applying the standards of the NASW Code of Ethics,
relevant laws and regulations, models for ethical decision making, ethical conduct of
research, and additional codes of ethics as appropriate to context;

● use reflection and self-regulation to manage personal values and maintain profession-
alism in practice situations;

● demonstrate professional demeanor in behavior; appearance; and oral, written, and
electronic communication;

● use technology ethically and appropriately to facilitate practice outcomes; and
● use supervision and consultation to guide professional judgment and behavior.

Competency 2–Engage Diversity and Difference in Practice Social workers
understand how diversity and difference characterize and shape the human experience and
are critical to the formation of identity. The dimensions of diversity are understood as the
intersectionality of multiple factors, including but not limited to, age, class, color, culture,
disability and ability, ethnicity, gender, gender identity and expression, immigration sta-
tus, marital status, political ideology, race, religion/spirituality, sex, sexual orientation, and
tribal sovereign status. Social workers understand that, as a consequence of difference, a
person’s life experiences may include oppression, poverty, marginalization, and alienation,
as well as privilege, power, and acclaim. Social workers also understand the forms and
mechanisms of oppression and discrimination and recognize the extent to which a culture’s
structures and values, including social, economic, political, and cultural exclusions, may
oppress, marginalize, alienate, or create privilege and power. Social workers:

● apply and communicate understanding of the importance of diversity and difference
in shaping life experiences in practice at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels;

● present themselves as learners and engage clients and constituencies as experts of
their own experiences; and

● apply self-awareness and self-regulation to manage the influence of personal biases
and values in working with diverse clients and constituencies.

Competency 3–Advance Human Rights and Social, Economic, and Environmen-
tal Justice Social workers understand that every person, regardless of position in society,
has fundamental human rights such as freedom, safety, privacy, an adequate standard of
living, healthcare, and education. Social workers understand the global interconnections of
oppression and human rights violations, and are knowledgeable about theories of human
need and social justice and strategies to promote social and economic justice and human
rights. Social workers understand strategies designed to eliminate oppressive structural
barriers to ensure that social goods, rights, and responsibilities are distributed equitably
and that civil, political, environmental, economic, social, and cultural human rights are
protected. Social workers:

● apply their understanding of social, economic, and environmental justice to advocate
for human rights at the individual and system levels; and

● engage in practices that advance social, economic, and environmental justice.

57 Understand the Conceptualization of Social Work Practice

Competency 4–Engage in Practice-informed Research and Research-informed
Practice Social workers understand quantitative and qualitative research methods and
their respective roles in advancing a science of social work and in evaluating their practice.
Social workers know the principles of logic, scientific inquiry, and culturally informed and
ethical approaches to building knowledge. Social workers understand that evidence that in-
forms practice derives from multidisciplinary sources and multiple ways of knowing. They
also understand the processes for translating research findings into effective practice. Social
workers:

● use practice experience and theory to inform scientific inquiry and research;
● apply critical thinking to engage in analysis of quantitative and qualitative research

methods and research findings; and
● use and translate research evidence to inform and improve practice, policy, and ser-

vice delivery.

Competency 5–Engage in Policy Practice Social workers understand that human
rights and social justice, as well as social welfare and services, are mediated by policy and its
implementation at the federal, state, and local levels. Social workers understand the history
and current structures of social policies and services, the role of policy in service delivery,
and the role of practice in policy development. Social workers understand their role in
policy development and implementation within their practice settings at the micro, mezzo,
and macro levels, and they actively engage in policy practice to effect change within those
settings. Social workers recognize and understand the historical, social, cultural, economic,
organizational, environmental, and global influences that affect social policy. They are also
knowledgeable about policy formulation, analysis, implementation, and evaluation. Social
workers:

● identify social policy at the local, state, and federal level that affects well-being, ser-
vice delivery, and access to social services;

● assess how social welfare and economic policies affect the delivery of and access to
social services;

● apply critical thinking to analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies that advance
human rights and social, economic, and environmental justice.

Competency 6–Engage with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and
Communities Social workers understand that engagement is an ongoing compo-
nent of the dynamic and interactive process of social work practice with, and on behalf
of, diverse individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities. Social work-
ers value the importance of human relationships. Social workers understand theories
of human behavior and the social environment and critically evaluate and apply this
knowledge to facilitate engagement with clients and constituencies, including indi-
viduals, families, groups, organizations, and communities. Social workers understand
strategies to engage diverse clients and constituencies to advance practice effectiveness.
Social workers understand how their personal experiences and affective reactions may
affect their ability to effectively engage with diverse clients and constituencies. Social
workers value principles of relationship building and interprofessional collaboration to
facilitate engagement with clients, constituencies, and other professionals as appropri-
ate. Social workers:

● apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environ-
ment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and
constituencies; and

● use empathy, reflection, and interpersonal skills to effectively engage diverse clients
and constituencies.

CHAPTER 2: Social Group Work and Social Work Practice 58

Competency 7–Assess Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Com-
munities Social workers understand that assessment is an ongoing component of the
dynamic and interactive process of social work practice with, and on behalf of, diverse
individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities. Social workers understand
theories of human behavior and the social environment and critically evaluate and apply
this knowledge in the assessment of diverse clients and constituencies, including individu-
als, families, groups, organizations, and communities. Social workers understand meth-
ods of assessment with diverse clients and constituencies to advance practice effectiveness.
Social workers recognize the implications of the larger practice context in the assessment
process and value the importance of interprofessional collaboration in this process. Social
workers understand how their personal experiences and affective reactions may affect their
assessment and decision making. Social workers:

● collect and organize data and apply critical thinking to interpret information from
clients and constituencies;

● apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment,
and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment data
from clients and constituencies;

● develop mutually agreed-on intervention goals and objectives based on the critical
assessment of strengths, needs, and challenges within clients and constituencies; and

● select appropriate intervention strategies based on the assessment, research knowl-
edge, and values and preferences of clients and constituencies.

Competency 8–Intervene with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations,
and Communities Social workers understand that intervention is an ongoing
component of the dynamic and interactive process of social work practice with, and
on behalf of, diverse individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities.
Social workers are knowledgeable about evidence-informed interventions to achieve
the goals of clients and constituencies, including individuals, families, groups, orga-
nizations, and communities. Social workers understand theories of human behavior
and the social environment, and critically evaluate and apply this knowledge to effec-
tively intervene with clients and constituencies. Social workers understand methods of
identifying, analyzing, and implementing evidence-informed interventions to achieve
client and constituency goals. Social workers value the importance of interprofessional
teamwork and communication in interventions, recognizing that beneficial outcomes
may require interdisciplinary, interprofessional, and interorganizational collaboration.
Social workers:

● critically choose and implement interventions to achieve practice goals and enhance
capacities of clients and constituencies;

● apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment,
and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and
constituencies;

● use interprofessional collaboration as appropriate to achieve beneficial practice
outcomes;

● negotiate, mediate, and advocate with and on behalf of diverse clients and constitu-
encies; and

● facilitate effective transitions and endings that advance mutually agreed-on goals.

Competency 9–Evaluate Practice with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organiza-
tions, and Communities Social workers understand that evaluation is an ongoing com-
ponent of the dynamic and interactive process of social work practice with, and on behalf
of, diverse individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities. Social workers
recognize the importance of evaluating processes and outcomes to advance practice, policy,
and service delivery effectiveness. Social workers understand theories of human behavior

59 Summary

and the social environment and critically evaluate and apply this knowledge in evaluating
outcomes. Social workers understand qualitative and quantitative methods for evaluating
outcomes and practice effectiveness. Social workers:

● select and use appropriate methods for evaluation of outcomes;
● apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-

environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the evalua-
tion of outcomes;

● critically analyze, monitor, and evaluate intervention and program processes and
outcomes; and

● apply evaluation findings to improve practice effectiveness at the micro, mezzo, and
macro levels.

SOCIAL GROUP WORK AS A COMPONENT
OF SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
Social work practice involves providing humane and effective social services to individu-
als, families, groups, organizations, and communities. Social work with groups has con-
siderable overlap in providing social services to individuals, families, organizations, and
communities. The skills, knowledge, and values needed for effective social work practice
with groups are similar to the skills, knowledge, and values needed for effective social work
practice with individuals, families, organizations, and communities.

The material in this text on verbal communication, nonverbal communication, prob-
lem solving, interviewing, counseling, and contracting is applicable to social work prac-
tice with both individuals and groups. A family, as described in Chapter 9, is a subtype
of a group. The close relationships between a group and an organization are described in
Chapter 10, as are the close relationships between a group and a community. Acquiring the
skills, values, and knowledge needed for effective practice with groups will simultaneously
increase a social worker’s ability to work effectively with individuals, families, organiza-
tions, and communities.

Summary

The following summarizes the chapter’s content in terms of the learning objectives presented at the beginning of the chapter.

1. Conceptualize social work practice.
This chapter conceptualizes social work practice. Social work with groups is an
integral component of social work practice. Social work is defined. The relationship
between social work and social welfare is described. Almost all social workers are em-
ployed in the field of social welfare. The Council on Social Work Education in EPAS
(2015) has defined generalist social work practice:

Generalist practice is grounded in the liberal arts and the person-in-environment
framework. To promote human and social well-being, generalist practitioners use a
range of prevention and intervention methods in their practice with diverse individ-
uals, families, groups, organizations, and communities based on scientific inquiry
and best practices. The generalist practitioner identifies with the social work pro-
fession and applies ethical principles and critical thinking in practice at the micro,
mezzo, and macro levels. Generalist practitioners engage diversity in their practice
and advocate for human rights and social and economic justice. They recognize,
support, and build on the strengths and resiliency of all human beings. They engage
in research-informed practice and are proactive in responding to the impact of con-
text on professional practice.

CHAPTER 2: Social Group Work and Social Work Practice 60

A social worker is expected to be knowledgeable and skillful in filling a variety of
roles, including enabler, broker, advocate, empowerer, activist, mediator, negotiator,
educator, initiator, coordinator, researcher, group facilitator, and public speaker.

2. Understand the medical model approach and the ecological approach to assessing
and changing human behavior.

In regard to emotional and behavioral problems of people, the medical model
conceptualizes these problems as mental illnesses. The ecological approach to emo-
tional and behavioral problems integrates both treatment and reform of systems by
conceptualizing and emphasizing the dysfunctional transactions between people and
their physical and social environments.

3. Specify the goals of social work practice.
The following goals of social work practice are described:

1. Enhance the clients’ problem-solving, coping, and developmental capacities.
2. Link clients with systems that provide resources, services, and opportunities.
3. Promote the effective and humane operation of systems that provide resources

and services.
4. Develop and improve social policy.
5. Promote human and community well-being.

4. Understand the strengths perspective in working with clients.
The strengths perspective seeks to identify, use, build on, and reinforce the abili-

ties and strengths that people have, in contrast to the pathological perspective, which
focuses on their deficiencies. It emphasizes people’s abilities, interests, aspirations,
resources, beliefs, and accomplishments.

5. Understand the conceptualization of social work practice that is presented in the
Educational Policy Statement of the Council on Social Work Education for baccalau-
reate degree programs and master’s degree programs in social work.

In EPAS (2015), the CSWE has identified the knowledge, skills, values, and
cognitive and affective processes that accredited baccalaureate and master’s degree
programs are mandated to convey to social work students. This EPAS material is
presented.

Group Exercises

EXERCISE A: Options Planning
GOAL: This exercise is designed to help students gain an awareness of how generalist social
workers generate options for combating social problems.

The leader briefly describes generalist social work practice and indicates that options planning is
one important aspect. The leader should state the purpose of this exercise, ask students to form
subgroups of about five students, and then read the first vignette to the subgroup. Give them
about 10 minutes to arrive at their options. Then ask the subgroups to share their options with the
class. Seek to stimulate class discussion of various options. Proceed with the remaining vignettes
in the same manner.

VIGNETTE #1
Blackhawk High School has recently had significant increases in the number of female
students who have become pregnant. Many of these students become single mothers
who face a number of obstacles in providing quality child care while trying to continue
their education. The community is becoming increasingly concerned about the rising

EP 7b
EP 8b

61 Group Exercises

pregnancy rate and the difficulties these young mothers are encountering. The principal
of the school requests that the school social worker, Ms. Gomez, do something to “fix”
these problems. What are realistic options that she might initiate and pursue?

VIGNETTE #2
A Midwest medium-sized city has agreed to take up to 1,000 refugees at the federal
government’s request from a Middle Eastern country to relocate in this city. The mayor of
this city appoints a task force to provide recommendations on what actions the city should
take to assist these residents to assimilate to this city. Dr. Conley, a social work professor
in the city, is appointed to this task force. Many of the refugees do not speak English. The
recommendations for actions that the city should take involve (among other things) rec-
ommendations for what services should be offered to the refugees. What realistic options
should this task force recommend?

VIGNETTE #3
Mr. Komarek is a social worker for a human services department in a small rural commu-
nity that has no shelter for homeless individuals or families. Community leaders have asked
the county public welfare department to do something about the increasing number of
homeless in the community. The director of the agency, responding to community pressure,
assigns Mr. Komarek to head up a task force (that is, a committee) to combat the homeless
problem. What realistic options could be pursued by Mr. Komarek and this task force?

VIGNETTE #4
The mayor of a large city has appointed a task force to develop recommendations for
improving living conditions in the inner city. The inner city has high rates of unem-
ployment, crime, drug and alcohol abuse, births outside of marriage, substandard
housing, high school dropouts, homeless individuals and families, gang activity, and
homicides. A great many people are receiving public assistance. Ms. Taylor, a social
worker and social planner employed by United Way, is appointed to this task force.
What realistic recommendations for improving living conditions should be advanced
by this task force?

EXERCISE B: Social Work with Groups and Generalist Practice
GOAL: This exercise is designed to help students acquire a working knowledge of key terms used
in social work.

Step 1. The leader states the purpose of this exercise. Indicate that social workers must be able to
describe to others what the profession of social work is and how it is distinct from other profes-
sions. Students form subgroups of about five students each. The leader asks each subgroup to
discuss answers to the first of the following four questions. Give the subgroups about 10 minutes
to arrive at their answers. Then ask them to share their answers with the class. After this process is
completed, the leader may summarize the answer to this question given in this chapter and may
compare it with the answers arrived at by the subgroups. The answers from the class may be bet-
ter than the answers in the text.

Step 2. Proceed with the remaining three questions in a similar manner.

QUESTIONS
1. Define social work and social welfare, and describe the relationship between the two.
2. Define the profession of social work and describe how it is distinct from such other helping

professions as psychology and psychiatry.
3. Define the terms “social worker” and “generalist social worker.”
4. Describe how social work practice with groups is distinct from, but similar to, social work prac-

tice with other client systems—that is, individuals, families, organizations, and communities.

CHAPTER 2: Social Group Work and Social Work Practice 62

EXERCISE C: Assessing Social Work Competencies
and Behaviors in Field Placement
GOAL: This exercise is designed to facilitate students and the social work program in assessing
the extent to which students have acquired the competencies and behaviors for social work prac-
tice while the students are in field placement.

Step 1: This field instrument may be used by agency field supervisors to evaluate the per-
formance of the interns they are supervising. One way of using the instrument is to evaluate
the intern at the end of field placement. The instrument is completed by the field instructor
and reviewed with the student intern and faculty liaison for the dual purposes of providing
a grade for the field placement and assessing the individual student’s attainment of social
work behaviors and competencies. Another approach is for field instructors to complete the
evaluation midway through the length of the field placement (that is, midsemester for a one-
semester field placement or midyear for a two-term field placement), then again at termina-
tion of the field placement. With either approach, benchmarks (as specified in 2015 EPAS)
need to be established.

EP 1a
through

EP 9d

Rating Scale for Evaluation of Field Placement Performance

Midterm ■ Final ■

Name of Intern

Date

INSTRUCTIONS FOR RATING INTERNS ON THE NINE COMPETENCIES
IN THE FIRST PART OF THE EVALUATION:
The standard by which an intern is to be compared is that of a new beginning-level social worker. The nine competencies that
are specified in this evaluation form are those established in 2015 by our national accrediting organization (the Council on
Social Work Education). Under each competency statement are several items that we ask that you rate according to the
following criteria.

1 The intern has excelled in this area

2 The intern is functioning above expectations for interns in this area

3 The intern has met the expectations for interns in this area

4
The intern has not as yet met the expectations in this area, but there is hope that the intern will meet the expectations in
the near future

5
The intern has not met the expectations in this area, and there is not much hope that the intern will meet the expectations
in this area in the near future

n/a Not applicable, as the intern has not had the opportunity to demonstrate competence in this area

Comments may be made under any competency statement, if desired. Please be sure to indicate those areas in which you think
the intern is particularly strong and those areas that need improvement.

This evaluation is intended to give the intern feedback about her or his performance. The agency supervisor’s rating of these
items will not directly be used to calculate the grade that is given to the intern. The faculty supervisor has the responsibility of
assigning the grade for the course. The grade that is assigned will be based on the faculty supervisor’s overall evaluation of the
student’s performance in placement in conjunction with the agency supervisor’s evaluation, intern logs, seminar participa-
tion, and assigned papers.

If you prefer to use another evaluation system in addition to this form to evaluate a student’s performance, please discuss
this with the faculty supervisor.

63 Group Exercises

Competency 1: Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior

Makes ethical decisions by applying the standards of the NASW Code of Ethics, relevant
laws and regulations, models for ethical decision making, ethical conduct of research, and
additional codes of ethics as appropriate to context

1 2 3 4 5 na

Uses reflection and self-regulation to manage personal values and maintain professionalism
in practice situations

1 2 3 4 5 na

Demonstrates professional demeanor in behavior; appearance; and oral, written, and
electronic communication

1 2 3 4 5 na

Uses technology ethically and appropriately to facilitate practice outcomes 1 2 3 4 5 na

Uses supervision and consultation to guide professional judgment and behavior 1 2 3 4 5 na

Comments:

Competency 2: Engage Diversity and Difference in Practice

Applies and communicates understanding of the importance of diversity and difference in
shaping life experiences in practice at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels

1 2 3 4 5 na

Presents herself/himself as a learner and engages clients and constituencies as experts of
their own experiences

1 2 3 4 5 na

Applies self-awareness and self-regulation to manage the influence of personal biases and
values in working with diverse clients and constituencies

1 2 3 4 5 na

Comments:

Competency 3: Advance Human Rights and Social, Economic, and Environmental Justice

Applies her/his understanding of social, economic, and environmental justice to advocate
for human rights at the individual and system levels

1 2 3 4 5 na

Engages in practices that advance social, economic, and environmental justice 1 2 3 4 5 na

Comments:

Competency 4: Engage in Practice-informed Research and Research-informed Practice

Uses practice experience and theory to inform scientific inquiry and research 1 2 3 4 5 na

Applies critical thinking to engage in analysis of quantitative and qualitative research meth-
ods and research findings

1 2 3 4 5 na

Uses and translates research evidence to inform and improve practice, policy, and service
delivery

1 2 3 4 5 na

Comments:

CHAPTER 2: Social Group Work and Social Work Practice 64

Competency 5: Engage in Policy Practice

Identifies social policy at the local, state, and federal level that affects well-being, service
delivery, and access to social services

1 2 3 4 5 na

Assesses how social welfare and economic policies affect the delivery of and access to social
services

1 2 3 4 5 na

Applies critical thinking to analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies that advance human
rights and social, economic, and environmental justice

1 2 3 4 5 na

Comments:

Competency 6: Engage with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities

Applies knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environ-
ment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and
constituencies

1 2 3 4 5 na

Uses empathy, reflection, and interpersonal skills to effectively engage diverse clients and
constituencies

1 2 3 4 na

Comments:

Competency 7: Assess Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities

Collects and organizes data and applies critical thinking to interpret information from clients
and constituencies

1 2 3 4 5 na

Applies knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment,
and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment data from
clients and constituencies

1 2 3 4 5 na

Develops mutually agreed-on intervention goals and objectives based on the critical assess-
ment of strengths, needs, and challenges within clients and constituencies

1 2 3 4 5 na

Selects appropriate intervention strategies based on the assessment, research knowledge,
and values and preferences of clients and constituencies

1 3 3 4 5 na

Comments:

65 Group Exercises

Competency 8: Intervene with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities

Critically chooses and implements interventions to achieve practice goals and enhance
capacities of clients and constituencies

1 2 3 4 5 na

Applies knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment,
and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and
constituencies

1 2 3 4 5 na

Uses interprofessional collaboration as appropriate to achieve beneficial practice
outcomes

1 2 3 4 5 na

Negotiates, mediates, and advocates with and on behalf of diverse clients and
constituencies

1 2 3 4 5 na

Facilitates effective transitions and endings that advance mutually agreed-on goals 1 2 3 4 5 na

Comments:

Competency 9: Evaluate Practice with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities

Selects and uses appropriate methods for evaluation of outcomes 1 2 3 4 5 na

Applies knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment,
and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the evaluation of outcomes

1 2 3 4 5 na

Critically analyzes, monitors, and evaluates intervention and program processes and
outcomes

1 2 3 4 5 na

Applies evaluation findings to improve practice effectiveness at the micro, mezzo, and
macro levels

1 2 3 4 5 na

Comments:

Overall Evaluation at MIDTERM:

Please check one of the following at the midterm evaluation. At the final evaluation do NOT complete this section.

■ This intern is excelling in field placement by performing above expectations for interns.

■ This intern is meeting the expectations of a field placement intern.

■ This intern is functioning somewhat below the expectations of a field placement intern. There is a question whether this
intern will be ready for beginning-level social work practice by the end of placement.

■ This intern is functioning below the expectations of a field placement intern. There is considerable concern that this intern
will not be ready for beginning-level social work practice by the end of placement. This intern should perhaps be encouraged
to pursue another major.

Comments/elaboration:

CHAPTER 2: Social Group Work and Social Work Practice 66

FINAL OVERALL EVALUATION:

Please check one of the following at the final evaluation. At the midterm evaluation do NOT complete this section.

■ This intern has excelled in field placement by performing above expectations for interns. If an appropriate position were
open at this agency for a beginning-level social worker, this intern would be considered among the top candidates for this
position.

■ This intern has met the expectations of the field placement. This intern is ready for beginning-level social work practice.

■ This intern is not yet ready for beginning-level social work practice.

■ This intern is not yet ready for beginning-level social work practice, has demonstrated serious problems in performance, and
perhaps should be encouraged to pursue another major.

Comments/elaboration:

Signature of Agency Field Instructor

Agency Date

The following section should be completed by the intern:

My agency supervisor and faculty supervisor have discussed this evaluation with me, and I have received a copy.
My agreement or disagreement follows:

■ I agree with the evaluation

■ I do not agree with the evaluation

Intern’s Signature

Date

■ If the intern disagrees with the evaluation, she/he should state that disagreement in writing and submit a copy to both the
agency supervisor and the faculty supervisor. The disagreement should be specific and should relate to the items in the
evaluation.

NOTE TO FACULTY
This exercise may be very valuable in obtaining assessment information for reaffirmation of accreditation by the Commission
on Accreditation of the CSWE.

EXERCISE D: Social Work Value Issues
GOAL: To clarify your values in regard to a number of prominent issues in social work.

Step 1. The leader explains the purpose of this exercise, indicating that social workers need to
be aware of their personal and professional values so that they know when they should take a
neutral position in working with clients and when they should sell or enforce a particular set of
values for clients.

Step 2. The leader distributes the following questionnaire to students and indicates that their
responses will remain anonymous. The questionnaire uses the following scale: (1) Definitely not,
(2) Probably not, (3) Probably yes, and (4) Definitely yes.

VALUES QUESTIONNAIRE
1. Would you marry someone of a different race?

1 2 3 4
2. If you were going to adopt a child, would you adopt a child of a different race?

1 2 3 4

EP 1b

67 Group Exercises

3. Are you in favor of a woman becoming president of the United States?
1 2 3 4

4. Do you believe busing should be used to attempt to achieve racial integration in
schools?
1 2 3 4

5. Do you support affirmative action programs that assert that certain minority groups and
women should be given preference in hiring over white males?
1 2 3 4

6. Do you believe a father who commits incest with his 10-year-old daughter should be
placed in jail?
1 2 3 4

7. Do you believe prostitution should be legalized?
1 2 3 4

8. If you or your partner were pregnant and in a situation where it would be very difficult to
raise a child, would you seriously consider an abortion?
1 2 3 4

9. Do you support a constitutional amendment to make abortions illegal?
1 2 3 4

10. If you are a female, would you be willing to be a surrogate mother? If you are male, would
you be willing to have your wife or future wife become a surrogate mother?
1 2 3 4

11. Do you believe the death penalty should be used for certain crimes?
1 2 3 4

12. Do you believe the United States should support an extensive program to develop the
capacity to clone human beings?
1 2 3 4

13. Do you support artificial insemination for humans?
1 2 3 4

14. Do you believe people should retain their virginity until they marry?
1 2 3 4

15. If a candidate for president of the United States were a Buddhist, would you be less apt to
vote for him or her?
1 2 3 4

16. If you are married, would you seriously consider having an extramarital affair?
1 2 3 4

17. Do you believe persons with a profound intellectual disability who will never be able to
function enough to sit up should be kept alive indefinitely at taxpayers’ expense?
1 2 3 4

18. Do you believe marijuana should be legalized?
1 2 3 4

19. Would you be upset if a son or daughter of yours were gay/lesbian?
1 2 3 4

20. Do you believe you could objectively counsel someone who had brutally raped four
women?
1 2 3 4

21. Do you think people should limit the size of their families to two children?
1 2 3 4

22. Do you favor a law to limit families to two children?
1 2 3 4

23. Do you think a person who is gay should be allowed to teach in elementary and secondary
schools?
1 2 3 4

CHAPTER 2: Social Group Work and Social Work Practice 68

24. Do you approve of a young couple trying out marriage by living together before actually
getting married?
1 2 3 4

25. Would you be in favor of a group home for drug addicts in your neighborhood?
1 2 3 4

26. Do you think the government should help support day care centers for working mothers?
1 2 3 4

27. In case of war, do you think women in the military service should take part in active
combat?
1 2 3 4

28. Do you think the United States should build more nuclear power plants to generate
electricity?
1 2 3 4

29. Would you encourage your son to have premarital sex?
1 2 3 4

30. Would you encourage your daughter to have premarital sex?
1 2 3 4

31. When you become an older person and unable to care for your needs, would you be willing
to be placed in a nursing home?
1 2 3 4

32. Do you support physician-assisted suicide when the victim is terminally ill and in intense
pain?
1 2 3 4

33. Would you consider marrying someone who is divorced and has two children? (Assume you
are single in answering this question.)
1 2 3 4

34. Do you believe you would enjoy being a social worker at a group home for persons with an
intellectual disability?
1 2 3 4

35. Do you believe the legal drinking age should be less than 21 years?
1 2 3 4

36. Would you marry someone who is of a different religion than you?
1 2 3 4

37. Do you believe there are circumstances that justify a person taking his or her own life?
1 2 3 4

38. Would you divorce your spouse if you found out he or she had an extramarital affair?
1 2 3 4

39. Would you allow a child of yours to play frequently with a child who has AIDS?
1 2 3 4

40. Do you believe most welfare recipients are able-bodied loafers?
1 2 3 4

41. Do you believe you would be comfortable in hugging a person who has AIDS?
1 2 3 4

42. Do you believe you would be comfortable rooming with a person who has AIDS?
1 2 3 4

43. Do you think social workers should inform a client’s current sexual partners that the client is
HIV positive if the client refuses to do so?
1 2 3 4

Step 3. The leader collects the questionnaires so that anonymity is assured and lists the question
numbers on the blackboard. After tallying the results (with the help of volunteers), the leader
seeks to open a discussion. For example, if most of the students indicate that they would not
marry someone of a different race, the leader asks, “Does this suggest that most of you may have
some racial prejudices?”

69 Group Exercises

EXERCISE E: Olga and Igor
GOALS: To identify some of your values, to see that your values often differ markedly from those
held by others, and to see that it is often difficult to accept someone else’s values.

Step 1. The leader explains the goals of the exercise. The class forms into subgroups of four or five
persons. Each subgroup rates the five characters in the following story. A number 1 rating is given
to the “best” character, that person who displays the most desirable behaviors in this situation. A
number 5 rating is given to the person who displays the most objectionable behaviors. The story
is read aloud two times.

Two primitive societies are separated by a turbulent river full of people-eating
piranhas. An earlier civilized society (which left the area decades ago) built a bridge
connecting the societies. Olga lives in Caribou Society and is very much in love with,
and engaged to, Igor, who lives in Moose Society. Both societies are highly opposed
to premarital sex. Both Olga and Igor are still virgins. Six days before the wedding a
monsoon destroys the bridge. Olga and Igor are on separate sides. Both believe there
is no way for them to get across or to ever see each other again. Both are distraught.

The night before the scheduled wedding, Blackbeard the sailor visits Caribou
Society. Olga asks Blackbeard to give her a ride across. Blackbeard says OK, on the
condition that Olga goes to bed with him in his boat as they are crossing. Olga definitely
doesn’t want to do this. But she fears she’ll never marry Igor, or even see him again.
Olga deliberates about it for 4½ hours. She asks a long-time friend, Solomon, for advice.
Solomon says, “It’s your problem. You have to decide. There is nothing I can do to help.
I don’t like the idea of your marrying anyone in Moose Society anyway.”

Olga finally says “yes” to Blackbeard. When they get across, Igor is in ecstasy over
seeing Olga. Olga kisses and hugs him and then starts to cry. Burdened with guilt,
she confesses that she had to go to bed with Blackbeard as the price for getting across.
Igor is outraged. He feels Olga has been tainted. He tells Olga he cannot marry her
and that he never wants to see her again. Olga runs to Samson, a mutual friend. Olga
tells her story to Samson, and Samson rushes to find Igor. Upon finding Igor, Samson
punches him out and knocks him silly. Olga looks on and laughs during the fight.

Step 2. The subgroups arrive at a consensus for rating the characters from one to five.

Step 3. The names of the characters are written on the blackboard (Olga, Igor, Solomon, Samson,
and Blackbeard) and a representative from each subgroup writes the subgroup’s ranking next to
each name.

Step 4. Someone from each subgroup describes the reasons for their rankings. The differences in
rankings are then discussed, especially how the values expressed for the rankings differed sub-
stantially among the subgroups. The leader might conclude by stating that it is important to iden-
tify our values in order to keep our personal value judgments in check when we deal with clients.

EXERCISE F: Genie and the Magic Lantern
GOAL: To identify what you really want at the present time.

Step 1. The leader explains the purpose of the exercise and asks the students to imagine the follow-
ing: “Let’s assume when you go home tonight there will be a magic lantern. After you rub the lan-
tern, a genie will appear and will give you the three things you want most in life now. These things
can be anything you want, tangible or intangible. Please list these three things on a sheet of paper.”

Step 2. The group forms a circle, and volunteers share what they wrote.

Step 3. After a number of examples, the leader summarizes what appear to be trends in what
respondents want most in life at the present time. The class discusses how the respondents’ lives
would change if their wishes were fulfilled. The exercise ends with students discussing what they
learned.

CHAPTER 2: Social Group Work and Social Work Practice 70

EXERCISE G: Pregnancy and Tragedy
GOAL: To examine a number of values through making decisions about a value vignette.

Step 1. The leader explains the goal of the exercise and asks students to form subgroups of five per-
sons. The subgroups are informed that their task is to rank the following characters as to who is most
and least responsible for Lucy’s death. The rankings are 1, most responsible, to 6, least responsible.
The following story should be read twice.

Lucy is 18 years old, white, and an attractive college freshman. She believes strongly
in racial equality, even though her parents have told her on several occasions that they
are opposed to interracial dating and marriage. In her courses, Lucy meets Kent, an
African American and a college sophomore, and they begin dating.

Lucy becomes pregnant. After a long, agonizing view of the alternatives, both
Lucy and Kent decide it would be best to seek an abortion. Neither Lucy nor Kent has
the money to obtain an abortion from an abortion clinic or from a hospital.

Lucy goes home with the hope of asking her parents for the necessary funds. She
begins by telling her mother that she is dating Kent, that Kent is African American, and
that they have become sexually involved. Her mother immediately becomes upset and
calls in Lucy’s father. Both parents angrily tell Lucy she must stop seeing Kent or they will
no longer pay her college bills. Lucy is not able to inform her parents she is pregnant.

Lucy is distraught. She returns to college. The next day Lucy hears of a person
who will perform the abortion at half price. Kent goes along with her to the abortion-
ist who, it turns out, is quite unskilled and unsanitary. Lucy begins hemorrhaging on
the table; Kent rushes her to the hospital, but it is too late, and Lucy dies. The hospital
administrator tells Kent that Lucy is the third person who has been admitted to this
hospital for hemorrhaging after being treated by this abortionist (the other two lived).
The hospital administrator adds that it’s about time someone informs the police.

Step 2. The subgroups arrive at a ranking for who is most to least responsible for Lucy’s death:
__________ Lucy
__________ Kent
__________ Lucy’s father
__________ Lucy’s mother
__________ The abortionist
__________ The hospital administrator

Step 3. The names of the characters are written on the blackboard, and a representative from each
subgroup writes the subgroup’s ranking on the blackboard. Each subgroup then provides the rea-
sons for its ranking. A discussion of the values underlying the rankings by these subgroups follows.

EP 1b

Competency Notes

EP 8a Critically choose and implement interventions to achieve practice goals and enhance capacities
of clients and constituencies. (pp. 36–39)

Roles assumed by social workers include enabler, broker, advocate, empowerer, activist, mediator,
negotiator, educator, initiator, coordinator, researcher, group facilitator, and public speaker. Exercise
2.2 allows students to examine their interest in becoming involved in these various social work roles.

The medical model and the ecological model are two contrasting models in conceptualizing the
problems and challenges faced by clients. Exercise 2.3 gives students an introduction to using the
medical model.

71 Key Terms and Concepts

EP 8b Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and
other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies.

EP 9b Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and
other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the evaluation of outcomes. (p. 47)

The problem-solving approach provides a framework for analyzing challenges faced by
clients and then intervening and evaluating interventions with clients. Exercise 2.6 allows stu-
dents to apply the problem-solving approach. The systems perspective is an essential perspective
for intervening with clients.

EP 8b Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment,and other
multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies. (pp. 51–55)

This material conceptualizes the activities performed by social workers as social casework, case
management, group work, group treatment, family treatment, community organization, policy
analysis, and administration.

EP 1a through EP 9d All the competencies and behaviors of 2015 EPAS. (pp. 55–59) This section reprints the knowledge,
skills, values, and cognitive and affective processes needed for social work practice, as stated in
2015 EPAS.

EP 8b Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and
other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies.
(pp. 60–61)

This exercise is designed to assist students in being creative in developing options to
improve services to vulnerable populations.

EP 1a through EP 9d All the competencies and behaviors of 2015 EPAS. (pp. 62–66) This exercise is designed to have field
supervisors assess the extent to which their students have attained the knowledge, skills, and
values for social work practice, as stated in 2015 EPAS.

EP 1b Use reflection and self-regulation to manage personal values and maintain professionalism in
practice situations. (pp. 66–68)

This exercise is designed to help students clarify their values in regard to a number of prominent
issues in social work.

EP 1b Use reflection and self-regulation to manage personal values and maintain professionalism in
practice situations. (p. 70)

This exercise is designed to have students examine a number of their personal values.

Key Terms and Concepts

Administration
Advocate
Broker
Case Managers
Community Organization
Consultant
Coordinator
Ecological Approach
Empowerment

Enabler
Generalist Practice
Helper Therapy
Homeostasis
Macro
Macro Practice
Management
Mental Illnesses
Mezzo

Micro
Patients
Person-in-Family
Planner
Planning
Policy Developer
Policy Development
Program Developer
Program Development

Reform Approach
Relationship
Social Planning
Social Worker
Supervisor
Wholeness

LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
Is the statement “He’s a born
leader” valid, or is leadership
a learned characteristic rather
than an inherited trait? This
chapter will help prepare
students to:

LO 1
Describe five major
approaches to leadership.

LO 2
Identify effective group
leadership functions, roles,
and techniques.

LO 3
Understand that the use
of power is a necessary
component of group
functioning.

LO 4
Describe five bases of power
in groups, and identify the
different consequences of
using these bases.

LO 5
Understand the effects of
unequal power in groups.

LO 6
Comprehend how to start
and lead a group.

LO 7
Understand strengths-
based leadership.

3
Group Dynamics:
Leadership
Leadership occurs whenever one person in a group influences other members to help the group reach its goals. Because all group members influence each other at vari-
ous times, each individual exerts leadership. However, a difference exists between being a
designated leader—a president or chairperson—and engaging in leadership behavior. A
designated leader has certain responsibilities, such as calling meetings and leading discus-
sions, whereas leadership refers to influential behavior in general.

LO 1 Describe Five Major Approaches to Leadership

APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP
Five major approaches to leadership theory—trait, position, leadership style,
distributed functions, and servant leadership—are summarized in the follow-
ing sections.

The Trait Approach
Aristotle observed: “From the hour of their birth some are marked for subju-
gation, and others for command.” This trait approach to leadership, which has
existed for centuries, assumes that leaders have inherent personal characteris-
tics, or traits, that distinguish them from followers. This approach asserts that
leaders are born, not made, and emerge naturally instead of being trained. It
has also been called the “great man” or “great woman” theory of leadership.
According to Krech, Crutchfield, and Ballachey, who reviewed research stud-
ies on leadership traits, a leader needs to be perceived as (1) a member of the
group he or she is attempting to lead, (2) embodying to a special degree the
norms and values central to the group, (3) the most qualified group member
to accomplish the task at hand, and (4) fitting members’ expectations about
how he or she should behave and what functions he or she should serve.1

Some research on personality traits indicates that leaders tend to be
better adjusted and more dominant, extroverted, “masculine,” and interper-
sonally sensitive than their followers. Other traits, such as intelligence, enthu-
siasm, dominance, self-confidence, and egalitarianism, have also been found
to characterize leaders.2 Although potential leaders tend to have more posi-
tive attributes than other group members, they cannot be so successful that
members perceive them as “different.” For example, Davis and Hare found
that “B” students were the campus leaders, whereas the more intelligent “A”
students were considered “grinds” who occasionally were treated as outcasts
for being “curve wreckers.”3 Also, the member who talks most has been found
to win most decisions and so becomes the leader, unless he or she talks too
much and antagonizes other group members.4

EP 7b
EP 8b

73 Describe Five Major Approaches to Leadership

Two postulated leadership traits that have received considerable attention are charisma
and Machiavellianism. We will take a brief look at each of these traits.

Charisma Charisma has been defined as “an extraordinary power, as of working
miracles.”5 Johnson and Johnson give the following definition of a charismatic leader:

The charismatic leader must have a sense of mission, a belief in the social-change move-
ment he or she leads, and confidence in oneself as the chosen instrument to lead the move-
ment to its destination. The leader must appear extremely self-confident in order to inspire
others with the faith that the movement he or she leads will, without fail, prevail and ulti-
mately reduce their distress.6

Some charismatic leaders appear to inspire their followers to love and be fully committed to
them. Other charismatic leaders offer their followers the hope and promise of deliverance
from distress.

Charisma has not been precisely defined, and its components have not been fully iden-
tified. The qualities and characteristics that each charismatic leader has will differ somewhat
from those of other charismatic leaders. The following leaders all have been referred to as
charismatic, yet they differed substantially in personality characteristics: John F. Kennedy,
Martin Luther King Jr., Julius Caesar, General George Patton, Confucius, Gandhi, and
Winston Churchill.

One flaw with the charisma approach to leadership is that people who are viewed as
having charisma tend to express this quality in a variety of ways. A second flaw is that
many people do well as leaders without being viewed as having charisma. For example,
many group therapists are effective in leading groups even though they are not viewed as
charismatic.

Machiavellianism Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527) was an Italian statesman who advo-
cated cunning, deceit, and duplicity as political methods rulers should use for increasing
their power and control. Machiavelli was not the originator of such an approach; earlier
theorists conceptualized leadership in terms of manipulation for self-enhancement. How-
ever, the term Machiavellianism has become associated with the notion that politics is
amoral and that any means should be used to achieve political power. Machiavellian leader-
ship is based on the concepts that people (1) are basically fallible, gullible, untrustworthy,
and weak; (2) are impersonal objects; and (3) should be manipulated so that the leader can
achieve his goals.

Christie and Geis conclude that Machiavellian leaders have four characteristics:

1. They have little emotional involvement in interpersonal relationships—it is easier to
manipulate others if “followers” are viewed as impersonal objects.

2. They are not concerned about conventional morality; they take a utilitarian view
(what they can get out of it) rather than a moral view of their interactions with others.

3. They have a fairly accurate perception of the needs of their followers, which facilitates
their capacity to manipulate them.

4. They have a low degree of ideological commitment; they focus on manipulating oth-
ers for personal benefit, rather than on achieving long-term ideological goals.7

It should be noted that some Machiavellian leaders have considerable charisma, but they
use their charisma to manipulate their followers.

Although a few leaders may have Machiavellian characteristics, most do not. Today
very few groups would function effectively or efficiently with Machiavellian leaders.

In recent years the trait theory of leadership has declined in popularity, partly because
research results have raised questions about its validity. For example, different leadership
positions often require different leadership traits. The characteristics of a good leader in the
military differ markedly from those of a good group therapy leader. Moreover, traits found
in leaders have also been found in followers. Although qualities such as high intelligence
and a well-adjusted personality may have some correlation with leadership, many highly

CHAPTER 3: Group Dynamics: Leadership74

intelligent people never get top leadership positions, and some highly intelligent leaders
(Adolf Hitler, for example) have been emotionally unstable. The best rule for leader selec-
tion involves choosing individuals with the necessary skills, qualities, and motivation to
help a group accomplish its goals.

The Position Approach
In most large organizations, there are several levels of leadership, such as president, vice
president, manager, supervisor, and foreman. The position approach defines leadership in
terms of the authority of a particular position. It focuses on studying the behavior, training,
and personal background of leaders in high-level positions.

Studies using the position approach, however, have revealed little consistency in how
people assume leadership positions. Obviously, some individuals may become leaders with
little related training (in family businesses, for example), whereas others spend years devel-
oping their skills. Also, individuals in different leadership positions have been found to

EXERCISE 3.1 The Charismatic Leader

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in identifying charismatic people and understanding the various characteristics that
lead a person to be charismatic.

1. Write the names of three people you identify as being charismatic. These may be presidents, political leaders, religious
leaders, teachers, acquaintances, and so on. For each person you identify, list the characteristics that cause this person
(in your view) to be charismatic.

2. For the three people you wrote about, identify the charismatic characteristics that all three individuals appear to have in
common.

3. Do any of these people have unique charismatic characteristics (that is, characteristics that are not held by the other two)?
If “yes,” identify the person and describe his or her unique characteristics.

75 Describe Five Major Approaches to Leadership

display a variety of appropriate behaviors. For example, a drill sergeant in basic military
training is not expected to be empathetic, but a sensitivity group leader is. It is difficult
to compile a list of leadership traits by using this approach. Not surprisingly, the position
approach has shown that what constitutes leadership behavior depends upon the particular
requirements of the position.

Another problem with the position approach is that it is difficult to define which
behavior of a designated leader is leadership behavior and which is not. Certainly not all of
the behavior of a designated authority figure is leadership behavior. For instance, an inex-
perienced individual in a position of authority can mask incompetence with an authoritar-
ian attitude. Also, the leadership behavior among group members who are not designated
leaders is difficult for the position approach to explain because this approach focuses its
attention on designated leaders.

The Leadership-Style Approach
Because researchers on the trait and the position approaches were turning out contradictory
results, Lewin, Lippitt, and White focused on examining leadership styles. Their research
uncovered three: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire.8

Authoritarian Leaders These types of leaders, who have more absolute power than
democratic leaders, set goals and policies, dictate the activities of the members, and develop
major plans. The leader alone is the purveyor of rewards and punishments and knows the
succession of future steps in the group’s activities. Authoritarian leadership is generally
efficient and decisive. One of the hazards, however, is that group members may respond
out of necessity and not because of commitment to group goals. The authoritarian leader
who anticipates approval from subordinates may be surprised to find that backbiting and
bickering are common in the group. Unsuccessful authoritarian leadership is apt to gener-
ate factionalism, behind-the-scenes jockeying for position among members, and a decline
in morale.

EXERCISE 3.2 Machiavellian Leaders

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in understanding the characteristics of Machiavellian leaders.

Some authorities view Joseph Stalin, Adolf Hitler, and Saddam Hussein as Machiavellian leaders. Identify three people you view
as Machiavellian leaders. (These people may include one or more of the leaders just mentioned.) For each person you list, write
the characteristics he or she had (or has) that are Machiavellian in nature.

CHAPTER 3: Group Dynamics: Leadership76

Democratic Leaders In contrast, democratic leaders seek the maximum involvement
and participation of every member in all decisions affecting the group and attempt to
spread responsibility rather than concentrate it. Democratic leadership can lead to slow
decision making and confusion, but it is frequently more effective because of the strong
cooperation that emerges from group participation. Interpersonal hostilities between
members, dissatisfactions with the leader, and concern for personal advancement all
become issues that are discussed and acted upon. With democratic leadership, the pri-
vate complaining that is kept behind the scenes in the authoritarian approach usually
becomes public. When this occurs, such conflicts can be more openly and readily con-
fronted and dealt with. Once this public conflict has been resolved in a democratic group,
however, a strong personal commitment usually develops, which motivates members to
implement group decisions rather than to subvert them. The potential for sabotage in
an authoritarian group is high, and therein lies the major advantage of the democratic
style. The democratic leader knows that mistakes are inevitable and the group will suffer
from them, but he or she must learn to stand back and allow the democratic process to
continue without interference.

Depending on the situation, authoritarian or democratic leadership may be more
effective, assuming members’ expectations about appropriate behavior for each situation
are met.9 When group members anticipate a democratic style, as they do in educational set-
tings or discussion groups, the democratic style is utilized well. When members anticipate
forceful leadership from their superiors, as in industry or the military, individuals accept a
more authoritarian form of leadership.

Laissez-Faire Leaders These leaders participate very little, and group members are
generally left to function (or flounder) with little input. Group members seldom function
well under a laissez-faire style, which may be effective only when the members are commit-
ted to a course of action, have the resources to implement it, and need minimal leadership
to reach their goals. For example, laissez-faire leadership may work well in a college depart-
ment in which the faculty members are competent, conscientious, and responsible and have
the resources to meet their objectives.

The Distributed-Functions Approach
Because different leadership styles are required in different situations (even within the
same group), research in recent years has focused more on how leadership functions are
distributed. The distributed-functions approach disagrees with the “great person,” or
trait, theory of leadership and asserts that every member of a group will be a leader at
times by taking actions that serve group functions. Leadership is defined as the perfor-
mance of acts that help the group maintain itself and reach its goals. Leadership func-
tions include setting goals, selecting and implementing tasks, and providing resources to
accomplish group goals while maintaining the group’s cohesion and satisfying the needs
of individual members. The functional approach involves determining what tasks, or
functions, are essential to achieve group goals and how different group members should
participate.

With this approach, the demands of leadership are viewed as being specific to a par-
ticular group in a particular situation. For example, cracking a joke may be a useful leader-
ship tactic in certain situations if it relieves tension. But when other members are revealing
intense personal information in therapy, humor may be a counterproductive and therefore
inappropriate leadership behavior.

Many individuals who fear taking a leadership role are uncertain about leadership
functions and feel they lack the proper qualities of a leader. Amazingly, even the most
fearful and anxious students have already taken on many leadership roles, and nearly
everyone has assumed leadership responsibilities by adolescence. Functional leadership
involves a learned set of skills that anyone with certain minimal capabilities can acquire.
Responsible membership is the same thing as responsible leadership because both
maintain the group’s cohesion and accomplish its goals. Because people can be taught

77 Describe Five Major Approaches to Leadership

leadership skills and behaviors, the implication of this theory is that nearly everyone can
be taught to be an effective leader.

Servant Leadership Approach
Servant leadership is an approach to leadership that was initially developed by Robert
K. Greenleaf.10 A servant leader is someone who looks to the needs of the group. The
servant leader is working with the members to solve problems and asks himself or
herself how he or she can help and promote their personal development. The servant
leader places the main focus on the members, as he or she believes that content and
motivated members are best able to reach their goals. In contrast to an autocratic style of
leadership, in which the autocratic leader makes most of the decisions, decision-making
responsibilities are shared with the members in the servant leadership style. The highest

EXERCISE 3.3 Authoritarian, Democratic,
and Laissez-Faire Leaders

GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you understand these three types of leadership styles.

1. Identify someone who used an authoritarian style in leading a group. State what the leader did that led you to conclude
his or her style was authoritarian. Also state what the reactions of the other group members were to this authoritarian
style.

2. Identify someone who used a democratic style in leading a group. State what the leader did that led you to conclude his or
her style was democratic. Also state what the reactions of the other group members were to this democratic style.

3. Identify someone who used a laissez-faire style in leading a group. State what the leader did that led you to conclude his or
her style was laissez-faire. Also state what the reactions of the other group members were to this laissez-faire style.

CHAPTER 3: Group Dynamics: Leadership78

priority of a servant leader is to support, encourage, and enable members to unfold their
full potential and abilities. (A highly competent teacher probably uses many of the con-
cepts of a servant leader.)

Larry C. Spears has identified the following 10 concepts that characterize a servant
leader:

● Listening: A servant leader is motivated to listen to members, is supportive of their
opinions, and validates their concerns. The servant leader not only attends to verbal-
ized concerns, but also to what is “unspoken.”

● Empathy: A servant leader seeks to understand and empathize with the members.
The members are viewed as people who need respect and appreciation in order to
facilitate personal development; and the more that members develop, the more suc-
cessful and productive they are apt to become.

● Healing: A servant leader seeks to help members solve their issues and conflicts in
relationships, as he or she wants to encourage and support the personal development
of each member. Such “healing” is postulated to lead to a working environment in the
group that is dynamic, fun, and free of the fear of failure.

● Awareness: A servant leader seeks to have a high level of self-awareness and to be
perceptive of what the members are thinking and feeling. He or she also seeks to be
aware of the interpersonal relationships in the group.

● Persuasion: A servant leader does not try to coerce members into compliance with
what he or she wants, but instead seeks to convince members to share decision-
making responsibilities.

● Conceptualization: A servant leader thinks beyond day-to-day realities by concep-
tualizing long-term goals and strategies for reaching those goals. He or she has a
personal vision that incorporates what is in the best interests of all members of the
group.

● Foresight: A servant leader has the capacity to foresee the likely outcome of possible
implementation strategies. (This characteristic is closely related to conceptualization.)

● Stewardship: A servant leader not only seeks to facilitate the personal development
and productivity of the group, but also realizes that he or she has an obligation to

EXERCISE 3.4 Applying the Distributed-Functions Approach

GOAL: This exercise is designed to show you that you have already taken on leadership functions in a group.

The distributed-functions approach asserts that every member of a group will be a leader at times by taking actions that serve
group functions. Identify a group that you are currently in or that you were a member of in the past. Describe the actions
you took that were useful to the group. (When you made positive contributions to this group, you were taking on leadership
responsibilities.)

79 Describe Five Major Approaches to Leadership

do what is best for the greater society. Openness and persuasion are more important
than control.

● Commitment to the growth of people: A servant leader focuses on nurturing the
professional, personal, and spiritual growth of members. He or she seeks to validate
the ideas of all the members and involves them in decision making.

● Building community: A servant leader not only seeks to develop a productive and
contented group, but also seeks to build a strong community. It is postulated that
members will have considerable growth with this style of leadership, which will
lead these members to add to the development of the communities in which they
live.11

Servant leadership is a lifelong journey that includes self-discovery, a desire to serve
others, and a commitment to developing the group members that one works with. Servant
leaders are humble, caring, visionary, empowering, relational, competent, good stewards,
and community builders. They put others first, are skilled communicators, are compassion-
ate collaborators, are systems thinkers, and are ethical. Instead of a top-down hierarchical
style, servant leaders emphasize trust, collaboration, empathy, and ethical use of power.
Servant leaders do not seek to increase their own power, but seek to lead by better serving
others.

Servant leadership not only facilitates the personal development of group mem-
bers, but has the potential to influence the broader society in a positive way. Group
members tend to be attracted to this style of leadership and tend to be happier and
more productive. (Servant leadership is not only an effective approach to leading a
group, but is also an effective management style for a supervisor to use in supervising
employees. Managers who empower and respect their staff tend to get better perfor-
mance in return.)

Will servant leadership work well in all groups? Undoubtedly not! Certain settings
probably require a more forceful form of leadership—such as in the military or in a prison
setting.

EXERCISE 3.5 Servant Leaders

GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you understand the servant leadership approach. Identify someone who used the servant
leadership approach in leading a group. Perhaps the person was a teacher or a member of the clergy. State what the leader did
that led you to conclude his or her style was servant leadership. Also state what the reactions of the other group members were
to this style.

CHAPTER 3: Group Dynamics: Leadership80

LO 2 Identify Effective Group Leadership
Functions, Roles, and Techniques

LEADERSHIP ROLES
Task and Maintenance Roles
Through considerable research on problem-solving groups, Bales has identified two
specific leadership functions: the task specialist and the social/emotional, or group
maintenance, specialist.12 All groups, whether organized for therapeutic reasons, prob-
lem solving, or other purposes, rely on members performing task roles and group main-
tenance roles satisfactorily. Task roles are those needed to accomplish specific goals set
by the group.

Task roles refer to the actions of individuals that help move the project, discussion,
decision, or task along. These roles include:

Initiating: Proposing tasks of goals, defining a group problem, suggesting a procedure
of ideas for getting the task accomplished, defining the task, and seeking to pro-
vide a structure for the meeting.

Information of Opinion Seeking: Requesting facts, seeking relevant information
about a question or concern, asking for suggestions or ideas or opinions, and
collecting data.

Clarifying: Interpreting or reflecting ideas and suggestions, clarifying conclu-
sions, indicating alternatives and issues to be considered by the group, giving
examples, defining terms, asking for clarification or an example, building
on the ideas of others, and developing half-stated ideas into fully developed
possibilities.

Summarizing: Pulling together related ideas, restating suggestions after the group
has discussed them, offering a decision or conclusion for the group to accept
or reject, and restating the decisions or action plans of the discussion.

Consensus Testing: Checking with the group to see how much agreement has been
reached and how ready the group members are to consider a decision or plan of
action.

Maintenance roles refer to the actions of individuals which preserve or strengthen
social/emotional bonds with the group. These roles include:

Encouraging: Being friendly and warm and responsive to others, accepting others and
their contributions, encouraging others to contribute, praising others for their
contributions, and pointing out the progress and accomplishments of the group.

Harmonizing: Attempting to reconcile disagreements, reducing tension, and getting
members to explore their differences and find common ground in their opinions.

Expressing Group Feelings: Sensing and verbalizing feelings, mood, and tensions in the
group and sharing one’s own feelings with other group members.

Fostering Communication: Helping to keep communication open, facilitating the par-
ticipation of others, suggesting procedures that permit sharing remarks, asking
others for their opinion, being sensitive and perceptive of the nonverbal signals
of members who want to participate, and asking others for their input when one
member is monopolizing the conversation.

Compromising: When someone is disagreeing with you, seek to find a compromise
that will “work” for you and the other member; when the group is stuck, offer
suggestions for getting unstuck; encourage the group to figure out a compromise
when disagreement arise; and help the group define its ground rules that will
facilitate handling disagreements. 13

Each of the foregoing task and maintenance functions may be required periodically
within a group, and effective group members (and leaders) are sensitive to these needs.

EP 8b

81 Identify Effective Group Leadership Functions, Roles, and Techniques

A task leader emerges in many groups because he or she has the best ideas and does
the most to guide discussions. Because this person concentrates on a task and generally
plays an aggressive role in moving the group toward the goal, hostility is apt to arise and
the task leader may be disliked. Concurrently, a second leader may emerge: a social/
emotional specialist who concentrates on group harmony and resolves tensions and
conflicts within the group. In groups with an official leader, the leader is expected to be
both the task specialist and the social/emotional specialist. In groups without an official
leader, these two functions are generally assumed by two different emergent leaders. When
social/emotional group maintenance needs are met, a group will continually improve its
task effectiveness. However, when maintenance needs are ignored, a group’s task effectiveness
deteriorates.

Hersey and Blanchard have developed a situational theory of leadership that points
out when leaders should focus on task behaviors, on maintenance behaviors, or on
both.14 In essence, the theory asserts that when members have low maturity in terms
of accomplishing a specific task, the leader should engage in high-task behaviors and
low-maintenance behaviors. Hersey and Blanchard refer to this situation as telling—the
leader’s behavior is most effective when the leader defines the roles of members and
tells them how, when, and where to do needed tasks. The task maturity of members
increases as their experience and understanding of the task increase. For moderately
mature members, the leader should engage in high-task behaviors and high-mainte-
nance behaviors. This combination of behaviors is referred to as selling. The leader
should not only provide clear directions about role and task responsibilities, but also
use maintenance behaviors to get the members to “buy into” the decisions that have to
be made.

Hersey and Blanchard also assert that when the group members’ commitment to the
task increases, so does their maturity. When members are committed to accomplishing the
task and have the ability and knowledge to complete the task, the leader should engage in
low-task behaviors and high-maintenance behaviors. This is referred to as participating.
Finally, for groups in which members are both willing and able to take responsibility for
directing their own task behavior, the leader should engage in low-task and low-maintenance
behaviors; this is referred to as delegating. Delegating allows members considerable auton-
omy in completing the task.

Other Roles
The designated group leader has a special obligation to assume, or to assist others in assum-
ing, timely and appropriate task and maintenance roles. Each leader is also responsible for
a variety of functions, which range from setting initial policies to planning for termination.
To meet the needs and particular developmental stage of a group, a leader may be required
to assume any of the previously described roles in addition to these:

Executive: Coordinates the activities of a group.
Policy Maker: Establishes group goals and policies.
Planner: Decides the means by which the group shall achieve its goals.
Expert: Offers a ready source of information and skills.
External Group Representative: Serves as official spokesperson.
Controller of Internal Relations: Controls the group structure and in-group

relations.
Purveyor of Rewards and Punishments: Promotes, demotes, and assigns pleasant or

unpleasant tasks.
Arbitrator and Mediator: Acts as both judge and conciliator and has the power to

reduce or increase factionalism within the group.
Exemplar: Serves as a model of behavior for other members.
Ideologist: Serves as the source of group beliefs and values.
Scapegoat: Serves as the target for members’ frustrations and disappointments.

CHAPTER 3: Group Dynamics: Leadership82

LO 3 Understand that the Use of Power Is a Necessary
Component of Group Functioning

POWER AND I N F L U E N C E I N GROUPS
Although the use of power in human interactions is often viewed negatively, it is, in fact,
a normal part of relationships because people are frequently influencing and being influ-
enced by one another. The terms power and influence will be used interchangeably in this
chapter. Both terms refer to the capacity of an individual to motivate others to carry out cer-
tain actions or to behave in a particular way. Earlier in this chapter, leadership was defined
as one member of a group influencing other members to achieve group goals and promote
group maintenance. In an effective group, each member at times takes a leadership role
by performing task and maintenance functions. Task functions move the group forward;
maintenance functions improve the social/emotional atmosphere of the group.

In making decisions, group members present their views and opinions in an effort to
influence group members. For example, some members attempt to incorporate their per-
sonal goals into the group’s goals or to promote the strategies for action they want imple-
mented. Members influence each other to commit their time and resources to the group.

EXERCISE 3.6 Your Task and Maintenance
Contributions to a Group

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in understanding your task and maintenance contributions to a group.

1. Identify a group you are currently participating in or have participated with in the past. Briefly describe this group, including
its goals.

2. Review the list of task roles and then describe your task contributions to this group.

3. Review the list of maintenance roles and then describe your maintenance contributions to this group.

83 Describe Five Bases of Power in Groups, and Identify the Different Consequences of Using These Bases

Controversies are usually settled through mutual influence, as members seek acceptable
compromises or solutions. The use of power is indeed a necessary component of effective
group functioning, and it is natural and generally desirable for every member to influence
other members in the pursuit of both personal and group goals.

Every group member has a need to control what happens in a group because people
join groups to attain personal goals they cannot achieve individually. If members do not
exert power, their chances of achieving their personal goals are small, and they are apt to
become apathetic and disengage themselves from the group.

When group members are cooperating, power is asserted in the same direction, and
members encourage each other to put forth greater effort, as they would on a sports team.
However, when members are competitive or have incompatible goals, their assertions of
power conflict. Republican and Democratic congressional representatives, for example, are
constantly competing with each other, and their efforts to influence frequently clash.

Group members in conflict sometimes resort to manipulation; that is, they influence
others for their own purpose or profit. Often, this manipulation is dishonest or unfair, for
it involves the use of power for one’s own benefit at the expense of other members. When
people say they do not want to have power over others, they usually mean they do not
want to manipulate others. If group members feel coerced by threats or discover they are
manipulated in other ways, they usually react with anger, distrust, resentment, and retali-
ation. Manipulation, then, is a destructive kind of power because it decreases cooperation
and can cause serious maintenance problems. “Influencing with integrity” is in contrast to
manipulation. In a group, influencing with integrity involves seeking to influence the group
in a direction that is in the group’s best interests.

An effective group member is skillful in influencing others in a positive way. The
amount of power a member has depends on how valuable his or her resources are. If a
member has vital resources that are also available to others, that member will have less
power. Interestingly, it is not a person’s actual resources that determine power; instead, it
is the perception of the other group members as to the value of a member’s resources. It is
possible to have vital resources but little power if these resources are ignored or unknown.
It is also possible to have great power but few vital resources if members exaggerate the
importance of such resources.

LO 4 Describe Five Bases of Power in
Groups, and Identify the Different
Consequences of Using These Bases

POWER BASES I N GROUPS
French and Raven have developed a framework for understanding the extent to which one
group member influences another by identifying five bases of power: reward, coercive,
legitimate, referent, and expert.15 This framework allows group members to analyze the
source of their power and offers suggestions on when, and when not, to use their power to
influence others.

Reward Power
Rewards include such things as promotions, pay increases, days off, and praise. Reward
power is based on B’s (one member’s) perception that A (another member or the entire
group) has the capacity to dispense rewards or remove negative consequences in response
to B’s behavior. This power will be greater if the group members value the reward and
believe they cannot get it from anyone else. Group members will usually work hard for
someone who has high reward power and will communicate effectively with him or her.
Reward power can backfire, however, if group members feel they are being conned or
bribed. If reward power is used by A in a conflict situation with В, В is apt to feel he is being
bribed and controlled, and may eventually refuse to cooperate.

EP 7b
EP 8b

CHAPTER 3: Group Dynamics: Leadership84

Coercive Power
The ability to fire a worker who falls below a given level of production is a common example
of coercive power, which is based on B’s perceptions that A can dispense punishments or
remove positive consequences. Coercive power stems from the expectation on the part of В
that he will be punished by A if he fails to conform to the required standards set by A. The dis-
tinction between reward and coercive power is important. French and Raven note that reward
power will tend to increase the attraction of В toward A, whereas coercive power will decrease
this attraction. If coercive power is used by A to attempt to settle a conflict, it often increases
B’s hostility, resentment, and anger. Threats often lead to aggression and counterthreats; for
example, military threats often increase conflict between rival countries. Coercive power may
exacerbate conflict by leading both A and В to distrust each other and to retaliate against each
other. Therefore, whenever possible, coercive power should not be used to settle conflicts.

Legitimate Power
Legitimate power is directly related to an internalized value or norm and is probably the
most complex of the five power bases. Legitimate power is based on the perception by В
that A has a legitimate right to prescribe what constitutes proper behavior for him or her
and that В has an obligation to accept this influence. Cultural values constitute one com-
mon basis for legitimate power and include intelligence, age, caste, and physical charac-
teristics as factors determining power. For example, in some cultures the aged are highly
respected and are granted the right to prescribe behavior for others. The legitimate power
inherent in a formal organization is generally determined by a relationship between posi-
tions rather than between people. A supervisor in a factory, for instance, has the inherent
right to assign work. A third basis for legitimate power is a legitimizing agent, for example,
an election. The election process legitimizes a person’s right to a position that already had a
legitimate range of power associated with it.

The limits of legitimate power are generally specified at the time that power is assigned
(for example, in a job description). The attempted use of power outside of this range will
decrease the legitimate power of the authority figure and decrease his or her attractiveness
and influence.

Referent Power
Referent power occurs when one individual, A, influences another, B, as a result of identifi-
cation. Identification in this context means either a feeling of oneness with A or a desire for
an identity such as A’s. The stronger the identification of В with A, the greater the attraction
to A and the greater the referent power of A. Verbalization of referent power is “I am like A,
and therefore I will believe or behave as A does,” or “I want to be like A, and I will be more
like A if I believe or behave as A does.” In ambiguous situations (that is, situations where
there are no objective right or wrong beliefs or opinions), В will seek to evaluate his or her
thoughts, beliefs, and values in terms of what A thinks, believes, and values. In ambigu-
ous situations, B is apt to adopt the thoughts, beliefs, and values of the individual or group
with which B identifies. French and Raven note that В is often not consciously aware of the
referent power that A exerts.

Expert Power
Accepting a physician’s advice in medical matters is a common example of expert influ-
ence, which is based on the perception that a person has knowledge or expertise that is the
source of power. Another example would be accepting a counselor’s suggestions. Experts
can influence В (the responder) only if В thinks that A (the expert) has the right answer
and В trusts A. The range of expert power is more limited than that of referent power
because the expert is seen as having superior knowledge or ability only in specific areas.
French and Raven note that the attempted exertion of expert power outside the perceived
range will reduce that power because confidence in the expert seems to be undermined.

French and Raven theorize that for all five types, the stronger the basis of power, the
greater the power. Referent power is thought to have the broadest range. Any attempt to use
power outside the prescribed range is hypothesized to reduce the power.

85 Describe Five Bases of Power in Groups, and Identify the Different Consequences of Using These Bases

EXERCISE 3.7 The Power Bases in This Class

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in understanding and applying the power bases that were developed by French and Raven.

This class can be reviewed as being a group. For each of the listed power bases, answer the following: Who in this class has this
power base? Have these people engaged in actions that demonstrated this power base? If “yes,” write down these actions.

Reward Power:

Coercive Power:

Legitimate Power:

Referent Power:

Expert Power:

CHAPTER 3: Group Dynamics: Leadership86

LO 5 Understand the Effects of Unequal Power in Groups

EFFECTS OF UNEQUAL POWER
The effectiveness of a group is improved when power is based upon expertise and compe-
tence and is relatively equal among members. Members are more committed to implement-
ing decisions when they feel they have had a fair say in making a decision. If a group is
dominated by a few powerful members, the low-power members are likely to feel less com-
mitted to carrying out the decisions they perceive as being made by the powerful members.
When power is relatively balanced, however, the members are generally more cooperative
with each other.

Unequal power often leads to distrust between the high- and low-power members. The
low-power members fear they will be manipulated and are reluctant to share their thoughts
completely with the high-power members because they believe that if they express views in
opposition to the views of the high-power members, they are apt to receive fewer rewards
and may be coerced. High-power members avoid revealing weaknesses because they fear
the low-power members may come to think they are undeserving of their power and seek to
grasp it. The problem-solving capacity of groups is generally increased when members have
fairly equal power or when the group has flexible and gradually changing power patterns
that tend to equalize influence among group members.

Power based on authority or popularity can dramatically reduce the problem-solving
capacities of groups when the tasks require expertise and competence. High-power people
generally believe that low-power people really do like them because they see themselves
as benevolent. They generally believe that low-power people communicate honestly with
them and do not hide valuable information from them. When low-power members express
dissatisfaction, however, high-power people frequently are not benevolent. Instead, they
perceive that the low-power people are “making waves” and “not appreciating what is being
done for them.” In such situations high-power people may withhold rewards and use threats
and coercion. These reactions usually intensify the conflict and polarize the two sides.

When threatened, high-power people may maintain power by instituting rules or
norms that legitimize their power and make it illegal to change the status quo.16 After the
South lost the Civil War, for example, the White power structure in the South sought to
maintain its power by keeping schools, restaurants, and public restrooms segregated. Pro-
cesses were established that prevented many Black people from voting, and few were hired
for high-status positions. Numerous state and local laws were enacted to legitimize this
segregation.

High-power people may also maintain their position by creating severe penalties for
attempting to change the status quo. Blacks in the South were lynched for such offenses as
seeking to be served in White restaurants. In addition, high-power members may seek to
deter low-power members from rebelling by dispensing a variety of rewards to those low-
power members who support the status quo.

Halle has observed that the greater a person’s power becomes, the less sufficient it seems
because the requests and claims upon it increase faster than the capacity to fulfill them.17 For
example, although the United States has become very powerful in the past 50 years, requests
for domestic and military help from other countries have increased more rapidly than the
country’s ability to fulfill them. The power of the United States thus seems insufficient.

How do low-power people relate to high-power people? There are a variety of strategies.
One is to emphasize and exaggerate the degree to which high-power people like them, over-
estimating their goodwill.18 Low-power people using this strategy direct much of their atten-
tion and communication to high-power people, seeking to remain on good terms with them.

A second strategy for low-power people is to become apathetic and submissive.
Authoritarian leadership often breeds this reaction. A third strategy is to become angry and
rebel; rebellion sometimes leads to destructive violence.

Low-power people can use a variety of strategies to change the distribution of power.19 One
is to endear themselves by frequently complimenting high-power people and agreeing with
them. The hope is that high-power people will come to depend on them and reward them with

87 Understand the Effects of Unequal Power in Groups

more power. A second strategy is to develop personal resources and organizations so that they
are less vulnerable to exploitation and less dependent upon high-power people. This strategy
builds a separate power structure. A third strategy is to build coalitions with other parties. Right-
to-life groups, for example, have formed a coalition with leaders in the Roman Catholic Church
in an attempt to make abortions illegal. A fourth strategy is to use existing legal procedures to
bring pressures for change. The civil rights movement has used the court system extensively to
force the power structure to make changes. A fifth strategy involves low-power members orga-
nizing and using confrontation techniques to force the power structure to change.

Perhaps the best known authority on using power confrontation techniques is Saul
Alinsky.20 Alinsky and his associates organized many citizens’ groups to confront estab-
lished power structures. For example, in the 1960s Alinsky was working with a citizens’
group known as the Woodlawn Organization in the inner city of Chicago. City authorities
had made commitments to this organization to improve several conditions in the neigh-
borhood. When it became clear the commitments would not be honored, however, the
Woodlawn Organization sought ways to pressure the city into meeting its commitments.
The proposed solution was to embarrass city officials by tying up all the lavatories at
O’Hare, one of the world’s busiest airports. Alinsky describes this effort as follows:

An intelligence study was launched to learn how many sit-down toilets for both men and
women, as well as stand-up urinals, there were in the entire O’Hare airport complex and
how many men and women would be necessary for the nation’s first “shit-in.”

The consequences of this kind of action would be catastrophic in many ways. People would
be desperate for a place to relieve themselves. One can see children yelling at their parents,
“Mommy, I’ve got to go,” and desperate mothers surrendering, “All right—well, do it. Do it
right here.” O’Hare would soon become a shambles. The whole scene would become unbe-
lievable and the laughter and ridicule would be nationwide, it would probably get a front
page story in the London Times. It would be a source of great mortification and embarrass-
ment to the city administration. It might even create the kind of emergency in which planes
would have to be held up while passengers got back aboard to use the plane’s toilet facilities.

The threat of this tactic was leaked (. . . there may be a Freudian slip here . . . so what?)
back to the administration, and within 48 hours the Woodlawn Organization found itself in
conference with the authorities who said they were certainly going to live up to their com-
mitments and they could never understand where anyone got the idea that a promise made
by Chicago’s City Hall would not be observed.21

Community change efforts through group projects are often enjoyable!

COLEADERSHIP OF A GROUP
Advantages
Coleadership has both advantages and disadvantages. The advantages (and benefits) will
first be described. During meetings of the group, coleaders can help each other in doing the
tasks (described earlier) associated with leading a group. Between meetings, the coleaders
can meet to discuss what went well at the last meeting and what needs to be improved; they
then can discuss what may be done to make the next meeting even more constructive and
effective. Such sharing will not only be beneficial to the group, but also is apt to facilitate the
professional growth of both coleaders.

If an effective coleader is paired with an inexperienced leader who has leadership
potential, the effective leader can mentor the inexperienced leader.

Coleadership provides two people to observe and attend to the dynamics taking place
in a group. As a result, the nonverbal communication of the other group members is more
apt to be accurately identified. (As an aside, it is best for coleaders to sit across from one
another so that they can more closely observe the nonverbal communication of all the
group members; if the coleaders sit next to each other, it is difficult to observe what is going
on with group members to their immediate left and right.)

CHAPTER 3: Group Dynamics: Leadership88

Coleaders are also apt to be a source of support for one another. (We all know that in
a group setting when we feel confident and supported, we are apt to be more effective in
communicating and also in problem solving.) In addition, coleaders in group treatment
settings can assist one another in role-plays, simulations, and solving the challenges being
faced by the other group members. Also, if one leader becomes uncertain as to what to
say or do about a particular issue that is being discussed, the other coleader is available
to step in.

EXERCISE 3.8 Groups of Equal Power and Unequal Power

GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you understand the effects of equal power and unequal power among members in a
group.

1. Describe a group that you participated in where group members had approximately the same amount of power.

2. Describe a group that you participated in where a few group members had most of the power and the rest of the members
had very little power.

3. Which group were you most attracted to? What were the reasons for this attraction?

4. Review the section on the effects of unequal power. Describe how these research results are consistent or inconsistent with
your experiences of being in a group of equal power and then in a group of unequal power.

89 Comprehend How to Start and Lead a Group

Disadvantages
There are a few potential drawbacks to coleadership. Leadership of the group may finan-
cially be more expensive—perhaps twice as expensive—as there may be two leaders who
have to be paid by someone. Communication time between meetings between the two lead-
ers may also incur a financial cost.

Conflict and tension between the coleaders, if it occurs, is apt to be detrimental to
achieving the goals of the group, as well as to achieving the individual goals of the members.
When the coleaders consistently pursue differing strategies or courses of action, the group
will be dramatically delayed in achieving tasks, group goals, and individual goals.

Toseland and Rivas note:

Experience has shown that it is worse to have a coleader with whom one does not agree than
to lead a group alone. Therefore, group workers should be cautious in choosing a coleader.
Difficulties may arise when workers agree to colead a group without carefully considering
whether they can work together effectively. Potential coleaders may want to examine each
other’s styles while leading a group or during team meetings before agreeing to colead a
group.22

Wright asserts that the decision to have coleaders should be based on the needs of the
group members rather than on group facilitators’ preferences for individual or dual leader-
ship.23 There are certainly situations that call for coleadership—for example, in a group of
couples that have marital issues, it is often highly advantageous to have both a male and
female leader in order to be representative of both male and female points of view.

LO 6 Comprehend How to Start and Lead a Group

GUIDELINES FOR FORMING AND LEADING A GROUP
The theory of leadership emphasized in this chapter is the distributed-functions approach,
which asserts that every group member takes on leadership responsibilities at various
times, and every effective action by a member is simultaneously an effective leadership
action. Being a designated leader is not that different from taking on leadership roles.
This section will summarize a number of suggestions for how to form and lead a group
effectively.

Homework
The key to successful group leadership is extensive preparation. Even experienced leaders
carefully prepare for each group and for each group session.

In planning for a new group, the following questions must be answered: What is the
purpose or general goals of the group? How can these goals be achieved? What are the
characteristics of the members? Do some members have unique individual goals or needs?
What resources are needed to accomplish group goals? What is the agenda for the first
meeting? What is the best way for members to suggest and decide on the specific goals of
the group? Should an ice-breaker exercise be used? Which one? Should refreshments be
provided? How should the chairs be arranged? What type of group atmosphere will best
help the group accomplish its tasks? What is the best available meeting place? Why has the
leader been selected? What do the members expect from the leader?

To plan the first meeting, a leader should view the group as a new member would
view it. Here are a few questions a new member might have: What will be the goals of this
group? Why am I joining? Will my personal goals be met? Will I feel comfortable? Will I
be accepted? Will the other members be radically different in terms of backgrounds and
interests? If I do not like this group, can I leave gracefully? Will other members respect
what I have to say, or will they laugh and make fun of me? By considering such concerns,
the leader can plan the first meeting to help other members feel comfortable and to clarify
the goals and activities of the group.

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CHAPTER 3: Group Dynamics: Leadership90

Before the first meeting, it is absolutely essential that a leader identify the group’s needs
and expectations as precisely as possible. A group whose leader and members disagree on
goals cannot succeed.

There are a variety of ways to identify what the members want. The leader may have
an opportunity to ask them before the first meeting. If that is not possible, the leader can at
least talk to the organizer of the meeting about the group’s expectations.

The first meeting is always a good time to clarify the group’s goals. The leader also
needs the answers to the following questions:

1. How many members are expected?
2. What are their characteristics: age, socioeconomic status, racial and ethnic back-

ground, gender, and educational/professional background?
3. How knowledgeable are the members about the topics the group will be dealing with?
4. What are the likely personal goals of the various members?
5. How motivated are the members to accomplish the purposes for which the group is

being formed? Voluntary membership usually indicates greater motivation. Indi-
viduals who have been ordered by a court to participate in an alcohol rehabilitation
program, for example, have little motivation and may even be hostile.

6. What values are the members likely to have? While being careful to avoid stereotyp-
ing, a leader must understand, for example, that teenagers on juvenile probation will
differ significantly from retired priests.

In planning a meeting, it is helpful for a leader to visualize how the meeting will go. For
example, a leader may want to visualize the following first meeting:

The members will arrive at various times. I will be there early to greet them, intro-
duce myself, assist them in feeling comfortable, and engage in small talk. Pos-
sible topics that are apt to be of interest to these new members are _________,
_________, and _________.

I will begin the meeting by introducing myself and the overall purpose of the group. I
will use the following ice-breaker exercises for members to introduce themselves
and get acquainted. 1 will ask the group to give me a list of four or five items they
would like to know about the other members. Then the members will introduce
themselves and respond to the items. I will also respond to the items and encour-
age the members to ask questions about me and the group.

After the ice-breaker exercise, I will briefly state the overall purpose of the group
and ask for questions. Possible questions are _________. My answers will be
_________.

We will proceed to the agenda, which has been mailed to the members. During the
discussion of each agenda point, the following questions may arise: _________.
My answers are _________.

The kind of group atmosphere I will seek to create is democratic and egalitarian. Such
an atmosphere is best suited for encouraging members to become committed
to the group goals and to contribute their time and resources. I will create this
atmosphere by arranging the chairs in a circle, by drawing out through questions
those who are silent, by using humor, and by making sure I do not dominate the
conversation.

I will end the meeting by summarizing what has been covered and the decisions that
have been made. We will set a time for the next meeting. I will finally ask if any-
one has any additional comments or questions. Throughout the meeting I will
seek to establish a positive atmosphere, partly by complimenting the members on
the contributions they make.

If a group has met more than once, the leader needs to review the following kinds of ques-
tions: Have the overall goals been decided upon and clarified? If not, what needs to be done in
this clarification process? Is the group making adequate progress in accomplishing its goals? If
not, what are the obstacles that must be overcome? Is the group taking the most effective course

91 Comprehend How to Start and Lead a Group

of action to reach its goals? What is the agenda for the next meeting? What activities should be
planned? Will successful completion of these activities move the group toward accomplishing
its overall goals? If not, which other activities will? Is each member sufficiently motivated to
help the group accomplish its goals? If not, why? What might be done to stimulate their interest?

Planning a Session
In planning a session, the leader must keep the group’s overall goals—as well as those for
that session—in mind. (For material on how to set group goals, see Chapter 4.) To be effec-
tive, the leader must know exactly what should be accomplished in each session and make
sure that all the items on the agenda contribute to the goals. Here is a checklist that may help
leaders plan successful group sessions. An effective leader will do the following:

1. Select relevant content. The material should not only be relevant to the specific goals
for the session but also to the backgrounds and interests of the participants. Time-
management advice for college students, for example, probably will be different from
that for business executives. Time-saving tips for students will likely focus on improv-
ing study habits; business executives will be more interested in how to manage time in
an office setting. An excellent way to evaluate possible material is to define precisely
how it will be valuable to members of the group. The leader should ask: “If a group
member wants to know why he or she should know this, can I give a valid reason?”
If that question cannot be answered precisely, the material should be discarded and
replaced with more relevant material.

2. Use examples. Examples help illustrate key concepts and stimulate the participants.
People tend to remember examples more readily than statistics or concepts. Vivid
case histories that illustrate the drastic effects of spouse abuse, for instance, will be
remembered much longer than statistics on the extent of spouse abuse.

3. Present materials in a logical order. It is generally desirable to begin by summarizing
the agenda items for the session. Ideally, one topic should blend into the next. Group
exercises should be used in conjunction with related theoretical material.

4. Plan the time. Once the content of a session is selected and organized, the time
each segment requires should be estimated. Accurate estimates will help determine
whether planned material and activities are appropriate for the allotted time. A good
leader also knows what material can be deleted if time is running short and what can
be added if the session progresses more rapidly than planned. Substitute activities
must also be available to replace speakers who fail to appear or films that fail to arrive.

5. Be flexible. A variety of unexpected events may make it desirable to change the
agenda during a session. Interpersonal conflict between members may take consider-
able time, or it may become clear that subjects related to the group’s overall purpose
are more valuable for the group to focus on than the prepared agenda.

6. Change the pace. People pay attention longer if there is an occasional change of
pace. Long lectures or discussions can become boring. Group exercises, films, guest
speakers, breaks, debates, and other activities will help vary the tempo of a meeting or
session. In group therapy, one way to change the pace is to move from one member’s
problems to those of another. Lectures can be more stimulating if the instructor:

● speaks extemporaneously instead of reading material
● walks around the room occasionally, rather than standing or sitting in one place
● draws out participants by asking questions

An excellent way to learn how to give more stimulating presentations is to observe the non-
verbal and verbal communication patterns of dynamic speakers. It is critical to use appro-
priate transitions so that the topics blend into one another smoothly.

Relaxing Before You Start a Meeting
Before beginning a meeting, the leader is likely to be nervous about how the session may go.
Some anxiety, in fact, is helpful because it increases alertness, and that will make the leader

CHAPTER 3: Group Dynamics: Leadership92

more attentive, producing a better meeting. Too much anxiety, however, reduces effective-
ness. Relaxation techniques that can alleviate excessive anxiety are described in Chapter 11.
They are highly recommended and include walking, jogging, listening to music, meditat-
ing, and being alone to clear the mind. Effective group leaders generally learn they can
reduce their level of anxiety through using one or more relaxation techniques. Practice in
leading groups also builds confidence and reduces anxiety.

Cues upon Entering the Meeting Room
It is essential that a leader be on time, but arriving early is better because it allows the leader
to see that materials, seating arrangements, refreshments, and any other needs are in place
as planned. The leader will also have an opportunity to observe the members before the
group begins. He or she can gain information about the interests of the participants from
their age, gender, clothes and personal appearance, conversation, and interaction with one
another. An effective leader observes such cues and uses them to create an initial bond with
the participants. For example, this author was asked to give a workshop on suicide preven-
tion to a high school class. Upon arriving, I was informed by the teacher that one of the
students in the class had recently committed suicide. Instead of beginning with my planned
presentation, I asked each student to write down, anonymously, one or two concerns or
questions that they had about suicide. We then had a lively discussion based on their ques-
tions and concerns. Such a discussion was probably more valuable than the formal presen-
tation (which I never gave) because it focused on their specific questions and concerns.

Seating Arrangements
Seating is important for several reasons. It can affect who talks to whom and influence
leadership roles and, as a result, affect group cohesion and morale. In most groups mem-
bers should have eye contact with one another. The group leader must be able to make eye
contact with everyone to obtain nonverbal feedback on what the members are thinking and
feeling.

A circle is ideal for generating discussion, encouraging a sense of equal status for each
member, and promoting group openness and cohesion. The traditional classroom arrange-
ment, on the other hand, has the effect of placing the leader in a position of authority. It also
tends to inhibit communication because members can easily make eye contact only with
other members seated nearby.

Tables have advantages and disadvantages. They provide a place to write and to put
work materials, and some members feel more comfortable at a table because they can lean
on it. But tables restrict movement and may serve as barriers between people.

The leader should thus carefully consider the use of tables. In business meetings or
other “working” sessions, for example, tables are necessary. In therapy groups, however,
tables are seldom used. When work surfaces and written communication are required,
small tables in a circle can be an effective arrangement.

The shape of the tables can also influence the way group members interact. If the table
is rectangular, the leader traditionally sits at one end, becomes the head of the table and the
“authority,” tends to do more talking, and has a greater influence on the discussion than
other group members. A round or square table, however, establishes a more egalitarian
atmosphere. The “head of the table” effect can also be reduced by placing two rectangular
tables together to make a square.

In new groups, or even established ones, members are likely to sit next to friends. If it
is important for everyone in the group to interact, the leader may want to ask people to sit
next to individuals they do not know. People are most apt to talk to others sitting at right
angles to them and then to those next to them. Those sitting directly across receive less
communication, and those sitting anywhere else are even less likely to be addressed.

Introductions
The leader’s credentials should be summarized at the first meeting to give the group a sense
of confidence that the leader can fulfill the expectations of the members. If the leader is

93 Comprehend How to Start and Lead a Group

being introduced, a concise summary of the leader’s credentials for the expected role is desir-
able. If the leader is introducing himself or herself, the important credentials should be
summarized in an informative but modest way. The summary should be made in a way
that helps create the desired atmosphere—whether it be formal or informal, fun or serious,
or whatever. An excellent way to handle the introductions in many groups is to use an ice-
breaker exercise, as described in Chapter 1.

It is highly desirable for the leader to learn the names of all group members as
quickly as possible. This requires extra attention, and name tags can help everyone be
more comfortable sooner. Members appreciate being called by name because it affirms
their importance.

If the group is small, the members can introduce themselves individually, perhaps
using an ice breaker. In addition to the usual personal information, it is helpful for members
to state their expectations for the group as they introduce themselves. This helps uncover
hidden agendas that are incompatible with the goals of the group. If a stated expectation
is beyond the scope of the group, the leader should tactfully point this out to avoid later
frustration or dissatisfaction.

Clarifying Roles
The leader of a group should be clear as to his or her roles and responsibilities. If they are
unclear, the leader may want to discuss them with the group. One way of doing this is for
the group to select goals and then make decisions about the tasks and responsibilities that
each member will have in working toward the goals of the group. In most situations it is
clearly a mistake for the leader to do the bulk of the work. Generally, the group will be most
productive if all members make substantial contributions. The more members contribute
to a group, the more likely they are to feel a part of the group. Such positive feelings will
benefit everyone.

Even if the leader is certain of the appropriate roles, others may be confused or may
have different expectations. If there is any doubt, the leader should explain the roles clearly.
If group members indicate different expectations, the group should then make decisions
about who will do what.

In explaining his or her role, the leader should be modest about personal skills and
resources, attempting to come across as a knowledgeable person rather than as an authority
figure who has all the answers. The leader must also be prepared to explain the reasoning
behind exercises and other actions or activities. The leader’s role will vary from group to
group and from situation to situation.

Agenda
Most meetings are more effective if the leader provides an agenda several days before-
hand. Ideally, all members of the group should have an opportunity to suggest items for
the agenda. The agenda should be briefly reviewed at the start of the meeting to give each
member a chance to suggest additions, deletions, or other changes. In some meetings it may
be appropriate for the group to discuss, and perhaps vote on, the suggested changes in the
agenda.

Additional Guidelines for Leading a Group
This section briefly summarizes additional suggestions for effectively leading a group.
Future chapters will expand on the following guidelines:

1. Understand that leadership is a shared responsibility. Every member will take on
leadership roles at times. Designated leaders should not seek to dominate a group or
believe they are responsible for directing the group in all of its task and maintenance
functions. In fact, productivity and group cohesion are substantially increased when
everyone contributes.

2. Use decision-making procedures best suited for the issues facing a particular group.
(See Chapter 6 for a discussion of a variety of decision-making procedures and their
consequences.)

CHAPTER 3: Group Dynamics: Leadership94

3. Use a problem-solving approach to handle the issues and problems facing the group.
(See Chapter 6 for a summary of how to use the problem-solving approach.)

4. Create a cooperative atmosphere rather than a competitive one. (See Chapter 4.)
5. View controversy and conflict as natural and desirable for resolving issues and arriv-

ing at good decisions. In resolving conflicts, seek to use a no-lose, problem-solving
approach rather than a win–lose approach. (See Chapter 6.)

6. Generally, seek to confront members who are hostile or disruptive (Chapter 4).
7. Use appropriate self-disclosure (Chapter 5).
8. Seek to create an atmosphere of open and honest communication. (See Chapter 5

for ways to improve verbal communication and be an active listener and for ways to
improve nonverbal communication.)

9. Provide stimulating, relevant content and exercises that illustrate the concepts and
help members try out suggested new behaviors. In an assertiveness group, for exam-
ple, theoretical material on how to be more assertive should be followed by practice in
being more assertive. (The chapters in this text use this format.)

10. Give attention to how to end a session. A few minutes before the session is scheduled to
conclude, or when the group has exhausted the subject, a brief summary emphasizing the
major points to be remembered leaves the group with a sense of achievement and signals
the end of the session. Additional ways to end a session are described in Chapter 14.

Leaders are not born. They are made—through training, practice, and experience.
By learning how to lead groups effectively, individuals become more aware of themselves,
grow as people, become more self-confident, feel good about themselves, develop highly
marketable skills, learn to improve interpersonal relationships, and help themselves and
others accomplish important tasks. Everyone reading this text has the potential to become
an effective group leader. This chapter has sought to demystify leadership by describing
what an effective leader does and is. It is now up to you to further develop your capacities
in being a leader. You can do it!

STANDARDS FOR SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE WITH GROUPS
As the name suggests, the Association for the Advancement of Social Work with Groups, Inc.
(AASWG) is an international professional organization that seeks to promote and advance
social work practice with groups. Its offices are incorporated in New York. This organization
has formulated the standards for social work practice with groups presented in Figure 3.1.

Purpose

These standards represent the perspective of the Association for the Advancement of Social Work with Groups, Inc. on the value and
knowledge and skill essential for professionally sound and effective social work practice with groups and are intended to serve as a
guide to social work practice with groups.

Introduction

The Standards focus on central distinguishing concepts of social work with groups and highlight the unique perspective that social
group workers bring to practice. By design, the standards are general rather than specific and descriptive rather than prescriptive.
They are applicable to a wide range of groups encountered by social group workers in a variety of practice settings. These groups
include, among others, treatment, support, psychoeducational, task, and community-action groups. The Standards draw heavily on
the Code of Ethics from the National Association of Social Work (the United States), group theory from the social sciences, knowledge
of individuals and the environment, the historical roots of social group work practice, current practice with groups, and practice
research. Thus, they are based on practice wisdom, theories of group work practice, and empirical evidence. They emphasize the

FIGURE 3.1 Standards for Social Work Practice with Groups (formulated by the Association for the
Advancement of Social Work with Groups)

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95 Comprehend How to Start and Lead a Group

understanding and use of group processes and the ways members help one another to accomplish the purposes of the group. The
role of the worker, as articulated in the standards, reflects the values of the social work profession generally, as well as the unique
features associated with social work with groups.

Section I: Core Values and Knowledge

The group worker should understand the history of group work and the evolving visions of group workers as they faced the chal-
lenges posed by each historical era. During this evolution, the following values emerged as the ones that are essential to the prac-
tice of group work.

A. Core Values

1. Respect for persons and their autonomy
In view of the quality of persons, people are to be treated with respect and dignity. In group deliberations no one person
should be more privileged in a group than other persons, not a worker, a group member, nor the agency director; in a group
this occurs when a worker helps each member to appreciate the contributions of the other members so that everyone’s ideas
are heard and considered. This principle is stated while recognizing that the worker, by virtue of his or her position in the
agency and his or her expertise, is likely to have a great deal of influence. This requires the worker to use his or her influence
prudently and transparently.

A major implication of this principle is a respect for and a high value placed on diversity in all of its dimensions, such as
culture, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, physical and mental abilities, and age.

2. The creation of a socially just society
The group offers an opportunity to live and practice the democratic principles of equality and autonomy, and the worker
should use his or her knowledge and skills to further this. The worker should be mindful of the quest for a society that is just
and democratically organized, one that ensures that the basic human needs of all its members are met. This value is pre-
sented to the group whenever this is appropriate and reinforced when members articulate it.

В. Core Knowledge

There are special areas of knowledge that enable group workers to more ably serve the group. This includes knowledge of the
history and mission of our profession as it impacts group work with poor people, minorities, and other disenfranchised people.
Understanding when group work is the practice of choice is important. The skills needed to carry out the professional mission
emerge from our values and knowledge that requires specialized education.

1. Knowledge of individuals
a. The nature of individual human growth and behavior, emphasizing a biopsychosocial perspective and a “person-in-

environment” view. The forces impacting the person and the group are important factors in group work assessment and
intervention. This includes viewing the members in the context of the group and of the community.

b. The familial, social, political, and cultural contexts that influence members’ social identities, interactional styles, concerns,
opportunities, and the attainment of their potentials.

c. The capacity of members to help one another and to change.
d. The capacity of members to contribute to social change in the community and beyond the group.
e. Competency-based assessment.
f. The group worker places an emphasis on members’ strengths, in addition to their concerns. The worker also must under-

stand protective and risk factors that affect individuals’ need for services and their ability to act.
g. The worker has an appreciation and understanding of such differences as those due to culture, ethnicity, gender, age,

physical and mental abilities, and sexual orientation among members and between members and himself or herself that
may influence practice.

2. Knowledge of groups and small group behavior
a. The worker understands that the group is an entity separate from the individual members. The group has its own dynam-

ics, culture, and other social conditions.
b. The worker understands that the group consists of multiple helping relationships so that members can help one another

to achieve individual goals and pursue group goals. This is often referred to as “mutual aid.”
c. The democratic process in groups occurs as the members evolve a sense of “ownership” of the group in which each mem-

ber’s contribution to the group is solicited and valued.
d. The group can develop in such a way that members, individually and collectively, are empowered to act on their own

behalf as well as on behalf of the group.

(continued)

CHAPTER 3: Group Dynamics: Leadership96

FIGURE 3.1 (continued)

e. Groups can develop goals that members are committed to pursuing. These goals may be for either individual member
growth, group development, and/or social change.

f. Group members as well as the group as a whole can seek changes in the social environment.
g. The phases of group development influence change throughout the life of the group.
h. Group processes and structures encompass all transactions that occur within the group and give meaningfulness to the

life of the group. These consist of such conditions as roles, norms, communications, the expression of affect, and the
nature of interaction patterns. These shape and influence individual member behavior as well as the development of the
group and also determine whether and how the group will accomplish its purposes. The members can come to under-
stand how group processes and structures shape and influence both individual member behavior as well as the develop-
ment of the group.

i. Groups are formed for different purposes and goals (for example, education, problem solving, task accomplishment,
personal change, social action), and this influences what the worker does and how the group accomplishes its goals, as
well as the nature of the contract between the worker and members, among the members, and between the group and
the sponsoring organization.

3. Knowledge of the function of the group worker
a. The worker promotes individual and group autonomy.
b. The worker helps the group members to select means of achieving individual and group purposes.
c. The worker’s assessments and interventions are characterized by flexibility, sensitivity, and creativity.
d. The worker should have a clear understanding of the stages of group development and the related group character,

members’ behaviors and tasks, and worker tasks and skills that are specific to each stage.
e. Practice should be based on currently available knowledge and research and represent contemporary practice principles.
f. The worker has responsibility for ongoing monitoring and evaluation of the success of the group in accomplish-

ing its objectives through personal observation, as well as collecting information in order to assess outcomes and
processes. The worker seeks the involvement of its members in the process of evaluation. Specifically, this means
that members should be involved in evaluation of outcomes throughout the life of the group. Workers should sys-
tematically evaluate the achievement of goals. The worker should be knowledgeable about methods of evaluation
of group work and ways of measuring or otherwise determining accomplishment of group and individual goals.
The worker should use all available evidence regarding effectiveness of particular interventions for different kinds
of groups.

g. The worker should maintain appropriate records of group processes and outcomes and ensure the confidentiality of
these.

h. The worker should have commitment to supporting research on group work and to disseminating knowledge about
effective practice through professional meetings, education, and scholarship.

i. The worker adheres to professional, ethical, and legal requirements generally associated with social work practice as well
as those specifically associated with social work with groups. The worker seeks to prevent any action in the group that
may harm any member.

j. Workers should have a commitment to engage in reflective practice in which they assess their own practice and seek
supervision and/or consultation in order to enhance their practice.

Section II: Pregroup Phase: Planning, Recruitment, and New Group Formation

A. Tasks and Skills

1. The worker should identify aspirations and needs of potential group members as perceived by members, workers, and the
agency.

2. The worker should obtain organizational support for and affirmation of the group.
3. The worker should select the group type, structure, processes, and size that will be appropriate for attaining the purposes of

the group.
4. The worker should reach out to and recruit potential group members.
5. The worker should obtain consent from potential members and relevant others as required by ethical guidelines and orga-

nizational requirements.
6. The worker should clarify potential group members’ goals and expectations of the group work service and use this informa-

tion to assess prospective members’ potential investments in the pursuit of group goals. The worker should help members
specify these goals in terms that can lead to the determination of their attainment.

7. The worker should establish an appropriate meeting place and meeting time that will be conducive to members’ comfort,
safety, and access to the group.

97 Comprehend How to Start and Lead a Group

8. The worker should prepare members for the group in ways that are appropriate. This will differ depending on the extent to
which the group is intended to attain individual goals or to accomplish task purposes in the agency and community. The
worker should be empathic in identifying members’ feelings and reactions to joining the group.

9. The worker should know how to select members for the group in relationship to principles of group composition, although
this principle may not apply to some task groups in which other bodies determine the group’s membership.

10. The worker should develop a clear statement of group purpose that reflects member needs and agency mission and goals.
This is often done cooperatively with the group members.

11. The worker should consider potential contextual, environmental, and societal impacts on the group.
12. The worker, as appropriate, should explain group purposes and processes to nonmembers such as other agency personnel,

relevant community entities, and parents or referring agencies in the case of groups promoting individual change.
13. The worker should determine issues of group content (what will go on during sessions) as well as the use of activities, sup-

plies needed, and resources.
14. The worker should identify methods that will be used to track group progress (for example, group progress notes, formal and

informal evaluations).
15. After each session, the worker should debrief and plan with the co-facilitator (if there is one) and arrange for consultation

and/or supervision on a regular basis. If there is a co-facilitator, they should consider together the implications of their simi-
larities and differences with respect to such issues as approaches, styles, and communication.

B. Required Knowledge

1. Organizational mission and function and how these influence the nature and development of the group work service.
2. Social and institutional barriers that may impact on the development of group work service.
3. How to assess the impact on the group in the community and agency context.
4. Issues associated with group composition (for example, gender, education, socioeconomic status, previous group experi-

ence, occupation, race, ethnicity, age, and presenting problems).
5. The influence of cultural factors on potential members’ lives and their ways of engaging in group interactions and relation-

ships with others, the agency, and the worker.
6. The importance of diversity in relationship to how a group attains its goals.
7. The theoretical approaches utilized by group workers and how to select the ones most appropriate and effective for the

proposed group.
8. Issues associated with group structure (for example, group size, length of sessions, duration of group, meeting place, open

or closed to new members, resources and supplies, and transportation).
9. The impact of human development/life-cycle factors on potential members’ needs and abilities and group goals.

10. Types of groups, such as task groups, treatment groups, psychoeducational groups, and sociorecreational groups, and their
applicability to individual, organizational, and community needs.

11. Issues related to group content such as discussion processes and purposeful use of activities and simulations. Such issues
include how these kinds of content are affected by stage of group development, capacities of members, and the purposes
of the group.

12. Contracting procedures, including the identification and clarification of group purpose, behavioral standards, and norms
needed to actualize group goals as determined by potential members, the worker, and the agency.

13. Recruitment procedures such as community outreach and referral processes.
14. How to identify and develop resources required for group functioning.
15. Group monitoring and evaluation procedures (for example, group progress notes, pretest and posttest measures, and ques-

tionnaires) to track worker interventions, group progress, and the group work service.
16. The importance of consultation and supervision in enhancing the quality of group work service.

Section III: Group Work in the Beginning Phase

A. Tasks and Skills

1. Task: Establishing a Beginning Contract
The worker and members collaboratively develop a beginning contract for work that identifies tasks to be accomplished,
goals to be achieved, and the process by which the work is to occur. The worker identifies the community’s and/or agen-
cy’s stake in the group, the group purpose and process, and clarifies worker and member roles. Confidentiality and limits
thereof are clearly identified. The worker assists members in identifying and clarifying individual goals and group goals. The
worker helps the members link individual goals with group purposes. The worker invites full participation of all members and
solicits member feedback on the progress of the group. The worker employs special skills in working with mandated mem-
bers and understands the impact on group dynamics of members’ mandated status.

(continued)

CHAPTER 3: Group Dynamics: Leadership98

FIGURE 3.1 (continued)

2. Task: Cultivating Group Cohesion
The worker establishes rapport with individual members and the group as a whole. The worker also aids the group members
in establishing relationships with one another so as to promote group cohesion. The worker highlights member commonali-
ties, links members to one another, and encourages direct member-to-member communication.

3. Task: Shaping Norms of Participation
The worker seeks to aid the group in establishing norms for participation that promote safety and trust, facilitate a culture of work,
and cultivate mutual aid. The worker is active in modeling these norms and instructing members when needed about produc-
tive group participation. The worker appreciates the impact of various psychological, sociocultural, and environmental forces
on these norms. The worker promotes group exploration of nonproductive norms when these arise. The worker demonstrates
respect for sociocultural differences, promotes autonomy and self-determination, and encourages member empowerment.

B. Required Knowledge

1. An understanding of the dynamic interaction between the community, agency, group, and individual members of the group
with which he or she is working.

2. The relevant theories and evidence-based practices regarding the developmental, psychosocial, and clinical needs of the
group members and how this informs beginnings.

3. The group type and technology being employed and the ways such may impact group functioning in the beginning stage.
4. The characteristics and needs of the beginning stage of group development and the related skills. Knowledge is needed

regarding such variations as working with mandated members, replacing a previous worker, and receiving new members
into an ongoing group.

Section IV: Group Work in the Middle Phase

A. Group Tasks and Worker Skills/Action:

1. Task: Assist group to make progress on individual and group goals. When group goals are a major focus, as in task and com-
munity groups, the worker encourages individual members to use their skills in pursuit of group goals.

Skills/actions:
a. Reinforce connections between individual concerns/needs and group goals.
b. Offer programmatic ideas and activities that support group purpose and assist in helping members achieve individual

and group goals.
c. Assess progress toward individual and group goals.
d. Identify difficulties and obstacles that interfere with the group and its members’ abilities to reach their goals.
e. If obstacles are related to the specific needs of an individual member, when appropriate, offer individual time outside of group.
f. Ensure that group has attended to any special needs of individual members (for example, physical, cognitive, language,

or cultural needs).
g. Assist members to engage in problem solving, in making choices and decisions, and in evaluating potential outcomes of

decisions.
h. Summarize sessions with the group.
i. Plan next steps with the group.
j. Recontract with members, if needed, to assist in achieving individual and group goals.

2. Task: Attend to group dynamics/processes.

Skills/actions
a. Support members to develop a system of mutual aid.
b. Clarify and interpret communication patterns among members, between members and workers, and between the group

systems and systems outside the group.
c. Model and encourage honest communication and feedback among members and between members and workers.
d. Review group values and norms.
e. Assist members to identify and articulate feelings.
f. Assist members to perceive verbal and nonverbal communication.

g. Help members mediate conflict within the group.
h. Assist members to make connections with other group members that may continue after the group ends, if this is appropriate.
i. Use tools of empowerment to assist members to develop “ownership” of the group.

99 Comprehend How to Start and Lead a Group

Task:
1. Assist members to identify and access resources from inside and outside the group.
2. Include knowledge, skills, and other resources of group worker, group members, and sources outside the group.
3. Ensure that workers are using the best possible practice techniques in facilitating the group.

Skills/actions:
1. Use group approaches appropriate to the populations served and the tasks undertaken as demonstrated in the literature,

worker and agency experience, and other sources of professional knowledge.
2. Use record-keeping techniques to monitor leadership skills and group process.
3. Access and use supervision.

B. Required Knowledge

1. Group dynamics.
2. Role theory and its application to members’ relationships with one another and the worker.
3. Communication theory and its application to verbal and nonverbal interactions within the group and between the group

and others external to the group.
4. Problem-solving processes in groups.
5. Conflict resolution in groups.
6. Organizational theories.
7. Community theories.
8. Developmental theories.
9. Evaluation theories and methods.

10. The impact of diversity, class, race, gender, sexual orientation, and ability status.
11. Knowledge about the group’s relations with its environment.
12. Specific knowledge of issues being addressed in the group.
13. Awareness of self.

Section V: Group Work in the Ending Phase

A. Tasks and Skills

1. Prepare members for the group’s ending in advance.
2. In a direct practice group, help members identify gains they have made and changes that have resulted from their participa-

tion in the group. In a task group, members may discuss what they have learned from this experience that will be useful to
them in other task groups. This involves a consideration of how achieving group goals will contribute to the functioning of
the organization and/or community.

3. Discuss the impact of the group on systems outside of the group (for example, family, organization, community).
4. Discuss the movement the group has made over time.
5. Identify and discuss direct and indirect signs of members’ reactions to ending.
6. Share worker’s feelings about ending the group.
7. Assist members in sharing their feelings about ending with one another and with the worker.
8. Systematically evaluate the achievement of individual and group goals. Routine and systematic evaluation of the group

experience could/should occur over time rather than in the ending stage alone.
9. Help members make connections with other agencies and programs as appropriate.

10. Assist members in applying new knowledge and skills to their daily lives.
11. Encourage members to give feedback to the worker on the worker’s role and actions in the group.
12. Help members apply new knowledge and skills to their activities outside of the group.
13. Prepare record material about the group for the agency, for individual members, and for referrals as needed.

B. Required Knowledge

1. Group dynamics related to endings. These will be different depending on the type of group (for example, long-term, short-
term, open-ended, single session). There are also special issues when a member or worker leaves the group but parts of the
group continue or there is a new worker.

2. Formal and informal resources that maintain and enhance members’ growth.

(continued)

CHAPTER 3: Group Dynamics: Leadership100

FIGURE 3.1 (continued)

3. Influence of past losses and separation in lives of members and the worker on endings.
4. Agency policies related to the worker maintaining connections following the ending of a group or member service.
5. Various forms of evaluation, formal and informal, and of evaluation measures, both qualitative and quantitative.

Section VI: Ethical Considerations

National and/or regional social work organizations typically have codes of ethics to which social workers must adhere. For example,
social group workers in the United States are expected to be knowledgeable about and responsive to the ethical mandates of the
social work profession, as explicated in the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) Code of Ethics. Although the entire code
is important, there are items with particular relevance to social group work.

Similarly, Canadian social workers must follow the Canadian Association of Social Workers Code of Ethics (2005). The expectation
of AASWG is that social workers will respect the code of ethics relevant to their locations of practice wherever in the world that may
be, as long as it is respectful of all persons.

Other social work ethical guides exist and may be more relevant for specific countries. Each needs to be considered in
the context of work with groups and may call for some modifications or additions that reflect the unique situations of group
work.

A. Elements of Ethical Practice in Social Group Work

1. Knowledge and use of best practices that reflect the state of the art and knowledge and research evidence regarding social
work with groups.

2. A basic discussion with prospective members of informed consent and an explanation of what group work offers and
requires of the members individually and as a group.

3. Maximizing member choice and minimizing coercive processes by members or workers to the extent possible. Emphasizing
member self-determination and empowerment of the group.

4. Discussion of the importance, limits, and implications of privacy and confidentiality with the members.
5. Helping the group maintain the purposes for which it was formed, allowing for changes as mutually agreed upon.
6. Each member is given the help he or she requires within the parameters of the group’s purpose, including individual meet-

ings when appropriate.
7. Clarifying the decision-making process.
8. Clarifying how members may be chosen for or excluded from the group.
9. Maintaining group records and storing them in a secure location.

B. Ethical Issues in the Use of New Techniques

As new techniques are used, such as those based on electronic communications, workers should pay attention to ethical issues,
practice skills, and knowledge and evaluation of these techniques. The following is a general statement with reference to electronic
communications:

Increasingly, practice with groups of all kinds is being done by utilizing technologies such as computer and telephone facilities,
and professional associations are assessing both effectiveness and ethical issues.

Issues such as member interaction, decision making, group structure, mutual aid, and particularly confidentiality are of vital
concern.

Worker competency may require new skills and knowledge not only in technology but also in communication techniques.
Clearly these technologies are likely to be extremely valuable for all persons seeking resources, as well as for the profession’s abil-

ity to share information about practice, including emerging approaches. In the meantime, workers contemplating their use should
consider the appropriate codes of ethics as guides and document all of their processes related to such work.

References

National Association of Social Workers. (approved, 1996, revised 1999). Code of Ethics for Social Workers. Washington, DC: NASW.

Canadian Association of Social Workers/Association Canadienne des Travailleuses Sociaux. (2005). Code of Ethics. Ottawa,
Canada: CASW/ACTS.

SOURCE: Reprinted with permission from The Association for the Advancement of Social Work with Groups, Inc. (AASWG, Inc.) (2nd edition,
2006).

101 Summary

LO 7 Understand Strengths-Based Leadership

STRENGTHS-BASED LEADERSHIP
For more than 30 years, Gallup scientists have been examining decades of data on the topic
of leadership. They have studied more than 1 million work teams, conducted over 20,000
in-depth interviews with leaders, and interviewed more than 10,000 followers around the
world to ask precisely why they followed the most important leader in their life.

In the text, Strengths Based Leadership, authors Tom Rath and Barry Conchie reveal the
results of this research.24 The findings demonstrate that leaders get more out of their work-
ers in the workplace if they emphasize that the workers should focus on doing what they are
already good at. Efforts to correct shortcomings of the workers rarely pay off. Leaders also
need to amplify their own strengths, rather than seek to correct their shortcomings. The
findings further indicate that to be an effective leader, the leader needs to know his or her
strengths and to get the people with the right strengths on his or her team. It is a mistake for
a leader to seek to convey to the workers that she or he has all the desirable characteristics
that workers admire, as no one can possibly have all those qualities.

When followers were asked what qualities they most admired in leaders, a large number
of qualities were identified. These include the following: building trust, showing compas-
sion, creating hope for success, making things happen by turning thoughts into action, being
adaptable, having the ability to identify all the factors that might affect a situation, having
good organizational skills, being ethical, having a “presence” by being able to take control of
a situation and making good decisions, being a good conversationalist and presenter, being
good at anticipating the obstacles to succeeding, being good at recognizing and cultivating
the potential in others, having and conveying empathy for others, being good at making cor-
rections to stay on track, being able to inspire others with their visions of a better future, being
good at building consensus, being accepting of others, having a gift for figuring out how peo-
ple who are different can work together productively, appreciating intellectual discussions,
having a great desire to learn and wanting to continuously improve, being upbeat and having
an enthusiasm that is contagious, having deep satisfaction in working with others to achieve
desirable goals, being committed to stable values such as honesty and loyalty, being good at
figuring out what is wrong and resolving it, having self-confidence that their decisions are
right, and loving the challenge of meeting new people and winning them over.

Given this laundry list of desired qualities in a leader, it is clear that no one can possibly have
all these qualities. Leaders need to identify their own strengths and then amplify these strengths.
Also, they need to get the right people on their team with the strengths they are lacking in.

Summary

The following summarizes the chapter’s content in terms of the learning objectives presented at the beginning of the chapter.

1. Describe five major approaches to leadership.
Five approaches to leadership theory are summarized: trait approach, leadership-style
approach, position approach, distributed-functions approach, and servant leadership
approach. The preferred approach in this text is the distributed-functions approach,
which asserts that every member of a group will be a leader at times by taking actions
that serve group functions.

2. Identify effective group leadership functions, roles, and techniques.
There are two specific leadership functions: the task specialist and the social/emotional
(or group maintenance) specialist. Task roles for each of these functions are identified.

3. Understand that the use of power is a necessary component of group functioning.
The terms “power” and “influence” are used interchangeably in this chapter. Both
terms refer to the capacity of an individual to motivate others to carry out certain

CHAPTER 3: Group Dynamics: Leadership102

actions or to behave in a particular way. Motivating others is a necessary component
of group functioning.

4. Describe five bases of power in groups, and identify the different consequences of
using these bases.
The following power bases in groups are described: reward, coercive, legitimate, refer-
ent, and expert. Referent power is thought to have the broadest range.

5. Understand the effects of unequal power in groups.
Unequal power between group members often leads to distrust between the high-
power and low power members.

6. Comprehend how to start and lead a group.
The chapter summarizes a number of guidelines for forming and leading a group.
The Association for the Advancement of Social Work with Groups has formulated
standards for social work practice with groups, which are presented in this chapter.

7. Understand strengths-based leadership
Strengths-based leadership has found that leaders get more out of their workers in
the workplace if they emphasize that the workers should focus on doing what they are
already good at. Efforts to correct shortcomings of the workers rarely pay off. Leaders
also need to amplify their own strengths, rather than seek to correct their shortcomings.
The findings further indicate that to be an effective leader, the leader needs to know his
or her strengths and to get the people with the right strengths on his or her team.

Group Exercises

EXERCISE A: Desensitizing Fears of Leading a Group
GOAL: To identify the specific fears about being a designated leader for a group and to provide
information to reduce those fears.

Step 1. The group leader should state the purpose of this exercise. Each student should then be
handed a sheet of paper and instructed to complete anonymously the sentence “My specific fears
about being a designated leader of a group are . . .” The leader should emphasize that the com-
pleted statements will be collected and discussed.

Step 2. The responses should be collected in a way that ensures anonymity and then read aloud.
After a concern is read, the students should suggest ways of reducing the concern. If a concern
involves handling hostile members, for example, the class, with help from the instructor, may
suggest strategies for coping with them. If a member fears that he or she does not have the traits
needed to lead a group, it may be pointed out that research has found that no specific traits
distinguish leaders from followers and that the distributed-functions theory of leadership asserts
that practically anyone can be trained to be a leader.

Step 3. After Step 2 is completed the group leader or the instructor may want to summarize key points
on how to lead a group and explain that future sessions will explore these points in greater depth.

EXERCISE B: Task Functions and Group Maintenance Functions
GOAL: To show that at times nearly everyone takes a leadership role in groups that involves
performing task and group maintenance functions.

Step 1. The group leader should indicate that this exercise will elicit the class’s thoughts on what
criteria should be used for admitting students into the social work program at this campus. The

EP 1b

103 Group Exercises

leader should then explain that the Council on Social Work Education (the national organization
that accredits social work programs) requires every program to have criteria for admitting stu-
dents. There is considerable variation in criteria among the programs in this country. Common
criteria include a minimum grade point average and a vaguely defined “aptitude for social work.”

Step 2. The class then forms subgroups of five or six students and each selects an observer. The
observers then form a group in another room or hallway. The subgroups should not begin dis-
cussing their primary task until the observers return.

Step 3. The observers are told that their task is to record significant task and group maintenance
functions performed by each member of their subgroups. The leader may need to explain that
task functions are statements designed to help the subgroup accomplish its task and that group
maintenance functions are statements made to strengthen the social/emotional aspects of group
life. Observers should be given a handout that summarizes the task roles and group maintenance
roles developed by Johnson and Johnson, which appear in this chapter. The observers will be
asked after the exercise is over to summarize to their subgroups how each member contributed
through certain task and group maintenance functions.

Step 4. The leader and observers return to the subgroups. The subgroups are informed that their
task is to develop criteria for admitting students to the social work program at this campus. The
subgroup is free to suggest various criteria, but should probably begin by discussing:

1. whether a grade point average should be used for admission and what it should be, and
2. how “aptitude for social work” should be defined and measured.

Step 5. The subgroups should work for 20 to 30 minutes, and each should then state and explain
its proposed criteria. Time should then be called, and each subgroup should be asked to indicate
to the class what criteria were arrived at.

Step 6. The group leader should indicate that one of the purposes of this exercise is to demon-
strate that most members in a group assume leadership roles by carrying out task and group
maintenance functions. The leader should then define task and group maintenance functions.

Step 7. Each observer summarizes to his or her subgroup, but not to the whole class, the signifi-
cant task and group maintenance functions performed by each member.

Step 8. End the exercise by asking members if they have any thoughts or comments.

EXERCISE C: Power Bases
GOAL: To practice analyzing influence attempts in terms of power bases.

Step 1. The group leader explains the purpose of the exercise, describes the five bases of power
developed by French and Raven, and briefly discusses the effects of using each base.

Step 2. The class divides into subgroups of three members each and answers the following
questions:

1. What bases of power does the instructor of this course have?
2. What bases of power does a student in this class have?
3. What is the primary power base the instructor has?
4. What is the primary power base a student has?

Step 3. The subgroups share their answers to these questions by having one member from each
subgroup write the answers on the blackboard. The class then discusses the reasons for the simi-
larities and differences between the answers arrived at by the subgroups.

Step 4. In all likelihood the instructor will be seen as having much more power than the students.
The group leader should summarize the effects of unequal power on communication and on
relationships within a group (as described in this chapter). Students then discuss how they feel
when an instructor attempts to present himself or herself on a level equal or superior to students.
Further, what are the positive and negative aspects of each relationship?

CHAPTER 3: Group Dynamics: Leadership104

EXERCISE D: Leading a Group
GOAL: This exercise is designed to facilitate the development of group leadership skills.

Step 1. The instructor explains the purpose of the exercise. Students form subgroups of two or
three students. They are instructed to prepare a presentation in a future class. Each subgroup
is told its presentation needs to do the following: (1) State the goal or goals of the presenta-
tion, (2) present to the rest of the class certain theoretical material that provides information
on how the goals can be achieved, and (3) lead the class in one or more group exercises—
exercises that illustrate key concepts and give participants practice in acquiring the skills that
are described in the theoretical material. For topic suggestions, the students may want to look
at the text.

Step 2. In future classes, the subgroups present. Each presentation is graded by the instructor on
(a) the quality and relevancy of the material, (b) the extent to which the subgroup got the partici-
pants involved and interested in the material, and (c) the extent to which the presentation was
consistent with the requirements for the assignment.

Competency Notes

EP 8b Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and
other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies.
(pp. 72–79)

The following approaches to leadership assist students in assessing group leadership and how to
be an effective group leader: trait, position, leadership style, distributed functions, and servant
leadership.

EP 8b Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and
other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies.
(pp. 80–82)

The material on task roles and maintenance roles in groups assists students in understanding the
roles that need to be fulfilled in order for a group to be effective.

EP 8b Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and
other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies.
(pp. 83–86)

The power bases in groups include reward, coercive, legitimate, referent, and expert. Students
need to understand power bases to assess these bases in groups, and to use these bases to
improve their interventions in groups.

EP 8b Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and
other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies.
(pp. 89–94)

Guidelines are presented on how to effectively form and lead groups. The Association for the
Advancement of Social Work with Groups has formulated standards for social work practice with
groups.

EP 8b

105 Key Terms and Concepts

Key Terms and Concepts

Delegating
Designated Leader
Influence

Leadership
Machiavellianism
Participating

Power
Selling

Task Roles
Telling

EP 8b Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and
other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies
(pp. 94–100)

The Association for the Advancement of Social Work with Groups has formulated standards for
social work practice with groups.

EP 1b Use reflection and self-regulation to manage personal values and maintain professionalism in
practice situations. (p. 102)

This exercise assists students in identifying their fears about leading a group, and suggestions are
generated for overcoming these fears.

EP 8b Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and
other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies.
(p. 104)

This exercise is designed to facilitate the development of group leadership skills in students.

106

LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
Just as a baseball team has a
short-term goal of winning a
game and a long-term goal of
clinching a pennant, individuals
and groups must identify
short-term and long-term
goals to function effectively.
This chapter will help prepare
students to:

LO 1
Set personal and group
goals in groups.

LO 2
Understand and identify
hidden agendas.

LO 3
Comprehend the
differences between
competitive groups and
cooperative groups.

LO 4
Apply the nominal group
approach.

LO 5
Understand the importance
of group norms, and
comprehend how norms are
formed.

LO 6
Identify group pressures to
conform.

LO 7
Identify various types of
hostile or disruptive group
members, and comprehend
how to handle disruptive
group members.

Group Dynamics:
Goals and Norms

LO 1 Set Personal and Group Goals in Groups

SET TING PERSONAL AND GROUP GOALS
A goal is an end toward which an individual or group of people is working. It
is an ideal or a desired achievement that people value. A personal goal is a goal
held by a member of a group. A group goal is a goal held by enough members of
a group that the group can be said to be working toward achieving it.

All groups have goals, and every individual who joins a group has personal
goals. Groups generally have both short-range and long-range goals. The short-
range goals should be stepping-stones to the long-range goals. Group goals are
important for several reasons. The effectiveness and efficiency of the group and
its procedures can be measured by the extent to which goals are achieved. Goals
guide groups and their members by giving the group’s programs and efforts direc-
tion. Conflicts between group members are often resolved according to which
position is most helpful in achieving group goals. Group goals are also a strong
motivating force that stimulates members to work together. Once members make
a commitment to achieve a certain goal, they will feel an obligation to put forth
their abilities, efforts, and resources to achieve it.

A member’s commitment to a group goal will depend on (1) how attracted
this member is to the group; (2) how attractive the goal appears; (3) how
likely it appears the group can accomplish the goal; (4) the ability to measure
progress toward achieving the goal and the ability to measure when the goal
is attained; (5) the rewards the group and the member will receive when the
goal is attained; (6) the challenge presented by the goal, as a moderate risk
of failure is usually more challenging than a high or low risk of failure1; and
(7) the types of interactions the member will have with other group members
in working toward the goal (some ways of interacting are more enjoyable and
rewarding than others).

Setting group goals is the first step in measuring the effectiveness of a group.
Once goals are set, the tasks necessary to accomplish the goals must be deter-
mined. Next, responsibilities for carrying out the tasks must be agreed upon or
assigned and deadlines for completing those tasks set. As the process proceeds, the
extent to which deadlines have been met and tasks achieved must be evaluated.
The final measurement is whether the group has achieved its goals. An effective
group is one that has considerable success in achieving its goals. (The processes
of setting group goals, determining the tasks for accomplishing the goals, assign-
ing tasks to each member, and setting deadlines for accomplishing the tasks are,
in reality, also the components of forming contracts with group members about
expectations. Contracts and group goals should be reviewed periodically as the
group progresses and revised if necessary.)

107 Set Personal and Group Goals in Groups

Group members will be more motivated to achieve group goals if they are involved in set-
ting those goals. Through involvement, members will be (1) more likely to have their personal
goals become a component of the group goals, (2) more aware of the importance of choosing
these goals, and (3) more committed to providing their resources to achieve the goals.

Personal Goals
The personal goals of members may be very diverse. In a stress management group, for
example, some members may join because they want to learn how to relax, others because
they are lonely and want companionship, and still others because their spouses urged them.
Some may join because they have heard good things about the group leader and want to
“check it out.” A few may join because they do not believe stress is destructive and want to
convince others of this belief.

Although some members are acutely aware of their personal goals, others may not
be. For example, freshman social work majors sometimes attend a meeting of the Student
Social Work Club at the urging of a faculty member without having given much thought to
their personal goals and objectives.

The more similarity there is between the personal goals of members and the goals of
the group, the more attracted to the group the members are likely to be and the more will-
ing to provide their resources and energies to the group. If the personal goals of the group
are homogeneous (alike), members are more apt to agree on group goals, to work together
toward achieving those goals, and to be happier with the group. Heterogeneous personal
goals do not necessarily spell failure for a group, but they do require special attention.

EXERCISE 4.1 Identifying Your Personal Goals

GOAL: We need to identify our personal goals in every group we participate in so that we then can select the kinds of group
activities that will allow us to achieve our personal goals, and thereby result in the group being personally useful to us. This
exercise is designed to assist you in setting personal goals.

Specify the personal goals that you have in this class. Your personal goals should include a summary of the knowledge, skills, and
values you want to acquire and perhaps also the grade you hope to attain.

CHAPTER 4: Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 108

LO 2 Understand and Identify Hidden Agendas

HIDDEN AGENDAS
When members have heterogeneous personal goals, hidden agendas are more likely to
develop. (If members have homogeneous personal goals, these goals are apt to become
group goals, and hidden agendas are less likely to arise.) A hidden agenda is a personal goal

EXERCISE 4.2 Hidden Agendas and Their Effects

GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you understand hidden agendas, their effects, and how you can more effectively respond
to someone who has a hidden agenda in a group.

1. Describe a group that you participated in where one of the other members had a hidden agenda that was eventually
revealed. What was the hidden agenda? How did this hidden agenda adversely affect the group?

2. How effective were the other group members in handling this hidden agenda?

3. As you reflect on how the other group members handled this hidden agenda, is there a course of action that could have been
taken that would have dealt with this hidden agenda more effectively? If “yes,” describe this course of action.

4. Describe a hidden agenda that you had when participating in a group. How did your hidden agenda affect the group?

109 Understand and Identify Hidden Agendas

held by a member but unknown to other group members, which interferes with the group’s
efforts. At times, hidden agendas can be very destructive. For example, I have participated
in groups where an individual observed the comments and actions of others to obtain evi-
dence to bring legal harassment charges. Usually, however, hidden agendas are less destruc-
tive than this and may consist of little more than a lonely person’s wish to monopolize
the group’s “air time” with insignificant small talk. Because this type of behavior can slow
progress severely, a group’s goals should incorporate to some extent the personal goals of its
members. Leaders can also minimize the effects of hidden agendas by making the group’s
goals clear at the outset.

Certain signals suggest hidden agendas. A member may fail to contribute or may
say and do things that impede group activities. When hidden agendas appear to exist,
the consequences of confronting a member about disruptive behavior must be evaluated.
If the consequences appear beneficial, then the member should be confronted, either
openly or privately. Whatever method of confrontation appears to be most beneficial
should be used. Sometimes, however, hidden agendas are best left undisturbed. For
example, a group member who has recently experienced the death of a spouse may use a
nontherapy group to ventilate pain. In this situation, it may or may not be constructive
to confront the person.

When confronting a member about a hidden agenda, avoid blaming or criticizing. The
confrontation should lead to a trusting, open discussion of the issue. If the hidden agenda is
rational and legitimate, extensive efforts should be made to help the member. Alternatives
for resolving the concern could be explored and one or more implemented to resolve the
problem. (Later in this chapter, additional suggestions are given on how to confront some-
one.) Perhaps the goals of the group can even be revised to incorporate the more personal
issue, or perhaps the member can be helped to achieve the personal goal outside the group.
A group member grieving over the death of a spouse, for example, may be referred to a
counselor or to a survivors’ group where the grief can be expressed and worked out more
effectively.

ESTABLISHING GROUP GOALS
Although group goals can be developed in a variety of ways, the procedures in the fol-
lowing sections are recommended because they involve group members in the decision-
making process. After the leader shares his or her views on the goals of the group, members
are asked to explain their own reasons for joining—that is, their personal goals. Work-
ing together, the leader and group members discuss the merits of the goals presented
and discuss additional goals, refining and rewording them until a final list is developed.
Decision-making procedures, as outlined in Chapter 6, may be used to resolve conflicts
and attain agreement. The final list should be typed and distributed to each member
for reference.

Alternatively, the group leader may interview each member before the first meeting
about personal and group goals and then develop a composite list to present at the first
meeting of the group. This list is then discussed and amended until most members are
satisfied. A less effective way to determine group goals is for the leader to attempt to “sell”
the group a set of goals he or she believes is preferable. If group goals are prescribed in this
manner or by the constitution of the group, they should still be fully discussed by members,
who may refine and reword them.

Effective groups usually follow a variation of the following format. Long-range
goals are set first, and efforts are made to state these goals in operational and measur-
able terms. Short-range goals are then established and prioritized as to their impor-
tance in achieving the long-range goals. Tasks are also identified to achieve short-range
goals and then ranked according to their importance. For high-priority tasks, specific
responsibilities are assigned to group members and deadlines are set for completion.
Future evaluations then identify the progress being made in achieving the tasks and
goals.

CHAPTER 4: Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 110

Operational and Measurable Goals
An operational goal is one that can be directly translated into courses of action to achieve
the goal. A goal such as “Each member of this class will be able to describe the difference
between personal and group goals” is operational. Students could put this goal into action
by studying the first part of this chapter and then taking a test that asks them to define both
terms. The test scores measure whether the class reached the goal.

A nonoperational goal is one that cannot be achieved through specific actions. “Every-
one in this class will learn how to cure all emotional and behavioral problems,” for example,
is nonoperational because treatment approaches have not been developed to treat success-
fully all people who have emotional and behavioral problems. A goal that is nonoperational
is much harder to achieve. For instance, it may be centuries before we know whether it is
possible to treat all emotional and behavioral problems successfully.

In practice, groups should strive to develop operational goals so that a course of action
can be developed and the goal more readily achieved. “Helping students to better manage
stress in their lives through instructing them in meditation,” for example, is much more
operational than “Seeking ways to help students better manage stress.”

Group goals should also be measurable. For example, the goal “Having everyone in
this class become a great group leader” is very difficult to measure without criteria to use in
judging what constitutes a great leader. In contrast, the following goal is more measurable:
“By the end of this semester, every student in this class will have demonstrated that she or
he can lead a group at a level that the instructor deems satisfactory.” One way to make this
goal operational is by having the students take turns being a group leader. For each session
the instructor then rates the student who leads the group as doing a “satisfactory” or “less
than satisfactory” job. Students who receive a “less than satisfactory” rating can be given
additional opportunities to lead the class and have their performance rated again. Progress
toward this goal is simply measured by counting the number of students who receive an
overall “satisfactory” rating.

Operational, measurable goals are valuable for a variety of reasons. They help guide
the members and the group in planning and working on tasks. A group that is unclear
as to what its goals are will be even more confused as to what specific tasks are needed
to reach those goals. Operational and measurable goals also measure the effectiveness of
the leader because the leader’s actions can be judged in terms of movement toward group
goals. Clear goals, in fact, often make leadership easier because the group knows what it
is trying to achieve and is less likely to question a leader’s actions that move the group
toward its goals.

In addition, operational and measurable goals make it easier to communicate the pur-
pose of the group to other groups and to nonmembers. Such goals also help evaluate prog-
ress. Each course of action can be assessed to determine its payoffs in attaining goals. The
group can easily determine whether a course of action should be continued or abandoned.
Clear goals and documented progress toward those goals are especially valuable when
accountability is required by funding sources or others. A final advantage is that conflicts
between members can often be resolved by determining which position appears to best help
the group reach its goals. When conflicts arise in groups that do not have measurable and
operational goals, there is no logical way to determine whose view has higher payoffs. As
a result, the conflict is not apt to be resolved and may force the group to spend more time
maintaining harmony than completing its work.

Forming clear goals that are operational and measurable is a lengthy, time-consuming
process. The goal-setting stage is often when a group flounders the most. It occurs early in
the life of a group, when members are also testing their interest and commitment and when
interpersonal relationships are being formed. Arriving at goals the members can support
often takes much longer than anticipated. The value of setting clear goals, however, far
outweighs the time and effort saved by accepting goals that are vague and that may later be
seriously challenged. Johnson and Johnson note, “The more time a group spends establish-
ing agreement on clear goals, the less time it needs in achieving them—and the more likely
it will be that the members will work effectively for the common outcome.”2

EP 7b
EP 9b

111 Understand and Identify Hidden Agendas

EXERCISE 4.3 Group Goals and Personal Goals in This Class

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in understanding the dynamics between group goals and personal goals.

1. Specify the group goals that the instructor wants for this class. (Usually, the “Course Objectives” section of the syllabus will
specify the group goals desired by the instructor. In his or her lectures, the instructor may have identified additional desired
group goals.)

2. Have all the students in the class “accepted” the desired group goals? If “no,” describe why you believe some students have not
accepted the instructor’s group goals.

3. Did the instructor ask the students for additional group goals that they desired for the class? If “yes,” did the students suggest
additional group goals? If “yes,” what were the additional group goals that were suggested, and were they adopted for this
class?

CHAPTER 4: Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 112

Research has found that groups have a better chance to be effective when the following
are met:

1. The goals are clear, operationally defined, and measurable.
2. The members see the goals as being relevant, attainable, meaningful, and acceptable.
3. Both personal and group goals can be attained by the same activities and tasks.
4. The goals are viewed as challenging and have a moderate risk of failure.
5. The resources needed to accomplish the tasks are available.
6. There is high coordination among group members.
7. The group members maintain a cooperative rather than a competitive atmosphere.3

LO 3 Comprehend the Differences Between
Competitive Groups and Cooperative Groups

COMPETITION VERSUS COOPERATION
Groups tend to have either a cooperative or a competitive atmosphere. A cooperative group
is marked by open and honest communication, trust, pooling of resources, and cohesion.
Research into problem-solving groups has found a number of positive consequences of a
cooperative group atmosphere. Cooperation among members increases creativity, coordina-
tion of effort, division of labor, emotional involvement in group accomplishment, helping

EP 7b

4. Do you believe some members of the class have personal goals or hidden agendas that are inconsistent with the group
goals? (These personal goals or hidden agendas may include “not wanting to study very much” or “wanting help in resolving
a personal dilemma.”) If “yes,” specify these inconsistent personal goals or hidden agendas.

5. Earlier in Exercise 4.1 you identified your personal goals for this class. Are your personal goals consistent with the group
goals? If some are inconsistent, please specify these inconsistent personal goals.

113 Comprehend the Differences Between Competitive Groups and Cooperative Groups

and sharing, interpersonal skills, cooperative attitudes and values, positive self-attitudes,
congeniality among group members, positive attitudes toward the group and tasks, diver-
gent thinking, acceptance of individual and cultural differences, and problem-solving skills.4

A cooperative group atmosphere results when the personal goals of group members are
perceived to be compatible, identical, or complementary. An example of a highly coopera-
tive group is a football team where the main goal of each member is to win, and the main
goal of the team is to win. In a cooperative group, each member seeks to coordinate his or
her efforts with those of other group members to achieve the goals of the group. In estab-
lishing a cooperative atmosphere, rewards to members must be based on the quantity and
quality of group performance, rather than on individual performance.

In contrast, a competitive atmosphere is usually destructive. Competition exists when
the members perceive their personal goals to be incompatible, different, conflicting, or
mutually exclusive. In a highly competitive group, a member can achieve a goal only if the
other group members fail to obtain their goals.5 A group interview of several applicants for
a job vacancy, such as an audition for a play, for example, is intentionally competitive. Each
member seeks to accomplish personal goals while seeking to block other group members
from accomplishing theirs. The negative consequences of competition in problem-solving
groups are numerous. Competition decreases creativity, coordination of effort, division of

EXERCISE 4.4 The Effects of a Competitive Group Member

GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you understand the effects of a competitive group member and to then reflect upon what
a group might constructively do to minimize the adverse effects of a competitive member.

1. Describe the behavior of a competitive person in a group in which you participated. Did the competitive behavior adversely
affect the group? If “yes,” please specify the adverse effects.

2. When a competitive person adversely affects a group, what constructive course of action might the other group members
take in order to minimize the adverse effects?

CHAPTER 4: Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 114

labor, helping and sharing, and cohesion. Competition promotes ineffective communica-
tion, suspicion and mistrust, high anxiety about goal accomplishment, competitive values
and attitudes, negative self-attitudes, animosity between group members, and negative atti-
tudes toward the group and its tasks. Competition also encourages the rejection of differ-
ences of opinion, divergent thinking, and cultural and individual differences. A competitive
atmosphere leads to low effectiveness in solving complex problems.6

Are there any situations in which competition is beneficial? There are a few. For example,
in team sports coaches have discovered it is beneficial to have highly talented athletes compete
for starting positions. Such competition generally encourages athletes to work harder. But
even in team sports, successful coaches know that a key to winning is instilling a sense of team
effort (that is, cooperative atmosphere) so that each player focuses not on individual recogni-
tion but on helping the team win by playing the role he or she has been assigned.

Kelly and Stahelski examined the question of what happens when a competitive person joins
a group that has a cooperative atmosphere.7 Because cooperative groups are much more effective
in solving problems than competitive groups, the question is significant. Three consequences
were found to occur. The competitive behavior of the new member leads the other members to
behave competitively. The competitive person views the former cooperative members as having
always been competitive. The former cooperative members are generally aware that their com-
petitive behavior is largely a consequence of the new member’s competitiveness. Thus, it appears
that one competitive person can change a cooperative group into a competitive group.

The positive characteristics of a cooperative group are readily destroyed by a competitive
person. All of the following decrease when a competitive person joins a formerly cooperative
group: trust, congeniality among members, openness of communication, and problem-solving
orientation.8 Why does a competitive person have such a strong, destructive effect? Apparently,
the cooperative members realize the competitive person will, if given a chance, take advantage of
their cooperativeness and use it to his or her personal advantage. In many situations, their only
recourse to prevent exploitation is to become competitive. Thus, even though cooperation is by
far the most effective atmosphere in problem-solving groups, it takes only one competitive per-
son to change the atmosphere to a destructive, competitive one. If a cooperative group is to sur-
vive, the members must work together to reduce feelings of competitiveness among the members.

LO 4 Apply the Nominal Group Approach

THE NOMINAL GROUP APPROACH
The nominal group approach, developed by Delbecq and Van de Ven, can be used as an
aid in formulating group goals.9 This approach is a problem-identification technique for
designing or modifying programs and involves meeting with potential users to assess their
needs. A nominal group is “a group in which individuals work in the presence of others but
do not verbally interact.”10 By simply allowing group members to list their needs on paper
without group discussion, each member’s personal views can be ascertained. Too often in
the past, new programs have been developed by “experts” who lacked a clear picture of
the needs of their consumers, with the result being the creation of programs that ineffec-
tively serve consumers. So the prime objective of the nominal group approach is to identify
the needs of the consumer group (that is, the potential users of a new service) in order to
develop a program that effectively serves them.11

A nominal group meeting can be conducted within a half-hour or an hour; it has often
been used by university faculty to identify topics students wish to have covered in classes.
For example, the nominal group approach was used by the social work department at the
author’s university in connection with an elective workshop in grief management.12 Enroll-
ment was limited to 30 students. At the first class meeting, the students were asked, using a
nominal group approach, “What specific topics do you want covered in this course?” The
specific steps in conducting a nominal group are described in Exercise C at the end of this
chapter. (The responses given in the grief management class appear in Table 4.1.)

EP 7b

115 Understand the Importance of Group Norms, and Comprehend How Norms Are Formed

When a nominal group is used with a subgroup of a consumer group, care should
be taken to obtain a representative cross-section of the consumer group. Before using the
nominal group approach, the subgroup should be informed of the purpose of the study.
However, the researchers should generally not provide any information on what they think
should be the results of using the nominal group approach so as not to bias the participants.

Research on the merits of the nominal group approach suggests that it is superior to brain-
storming and to other types of group interaction for generating information relevant to a prob-
lem situation. It elicits more suggestions and covers more areas of interest.13 (Brainstorming
has the shortcoming that the items first suggested tend to set the direction for future items that
are generated.) The nominal group is designed to receive input from all group members rather
than just the more vocal or aggressive ones, as often happens in conventional group discus-
sions. Evaluation of items is avoided, which substantially reduces the pressure against express-
ing minority opinions or unconventional ideas. Conflicting, incompatible ideas are tolerated.
Furthermore, the approach appears to save time, as it can be conducted faster than interacting
group processes.14 The nominal group approach has a gamelike quality, as the group generates
creative tension, which appears to stimulate individuals to do their best in suggesting items.

LO 5 Understand the Importance of Group Norms,
and Comprehend How Norms Are Formed

GROUP NORMS
Group norms are rules that specify proper group behavior. To be a norm, a rule must be
accepted by a majority of the group. If a person recognizes a norm and believes the benefits
of conforming outweigh the consequences of deviating, the norm can influence that per-
son’s behavior. At first, members may conform because of pressures from the group. As time
passes, though, members generally internalize norms and conform automatically. Norms

TABLE 4.1 Highest-Ranking Topics for Grief
Management Course

Topics Number of Votes

1. Suicide 13

2. Getting over the loss and loneliness that result from the death of someone else 9

3. The terminally ill and how to relate to them 9

4. Funeral director—guest speaker 9

5. AIDS 8

6. Getting over the loss of a close relationship 8

7. Coping skills for myself and others 8

8. Hospice movement—guest speaker 8

9. How to come to terms with your own death 7

10. Should one be permitted to take one’s own life? 7

11. How to change fears and negative attitudes about death 6

12. Communication with survivors (that is, people who have had someone close to them die) 6

13. Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) 6

14. Life after death 5

15. How to help others (parents) deal with the death of someone close (children) 4

CHAPTER 4: Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 116

provide one of the most important mechanisms of social control over members of groups
and over society as a whole.

Every group has norms. If you frequently socialize with a certain group of students,
for example, your group will gradually set norms as to what is acceptable and unaccept-
able behavior at gatherings. Your classes will have certain norms as well, covering smok-
ing, chewing bubble gum, arriving late, absences, meeting deadlines, raising a hand before
speaking, and cheating on exams.

Some norms are set formally—bylaws and constitutions of organizations, for instance,
specify responsibilities for the officers. Other norms are set informally. During a depart-
ment meeting, the department chair may frown at a faculty member who is reading her
mail. If that faculty member responds to the nonverbal communication and puts aside her
mail, other faculty members may observe the nonverbal interaction and decide never to
read their mail during meetings. Through this process a norm against reading mail has
informally been established.

Norms have an “ought to” or “must” quality, and they vary in importance. There
are strong pressures to obey and, in some cases, severe penalties for violating important
norms—confidentiality in therapy groups, for example. If a member violates confidentiality
by revealing personal information about another member to others outside the group, he or
she may be penalized by expulsion from the group. Failure to obey less important norms,
such as not belching at meetings, generates only mild disapproval and little or no penalty.

Members are often only subconsciously aware of many of the norms that are guiding
their behavior. If one were to ask a group member to define the group’s norms, he or she would
probably be able to list only a few because many norms are taken for granted. Norms relating
to dress, promptness, or foul language are often given little thought by group members.

When people enter a new group, they generally feel strange and uncomfortable because
they are unaware of the norms. So they search for clues to norms, asking themselves such
questions as these: What is appropriate to disclose, and what is not? Who is in the “in”
group, and who is left out? Is smoking permissible? Can I tell a joke? Do members raise
their hands before speaking? What role does each member play? Is the group competitive
or cooperative? Are there hidden agendas? Are there coalitions? Which members are more
powerful?

How Norms Are Learned and Developed
Some group norms are fairly universal, so new members who have worked in groups before
will be aware of many norms that are likely to be operating. For example, an individual who
joins a therapy group will expect other members to be honest, open, and self-disclosing.
Many groups have norms such as reciprocity (if someone, does something kind or helpful for
you, you should do something kind or helpful in return), fair play (don’t lie or cheat to get
what you want), social responsibility (you should help those who need it), and shared air time
(everyone should have a chance to talk and no one should monopolize the conversation).

New members learn norms by talking privately with a group member they trust. They
may ask questions like this: Who has the power? Is it acceptable to say or do such and
such? Are there coalitions in the group? Do some members have hidden agendas? Are there
personal matters that some members are sensitive about? Someone who is overweight, for
example, may express discomfort with comments on dieting, and other members may indi-
vidually decide not to mention dieting when the overweight person is present.

Although norms are learned in a variety of ways, the most common way is through
positive and negative reinforcement. Through a process of trial and error, members iden-
tify which of their behaviors are accepted and rewarded by the group and which are judged
inappropriate or destructive. Another way members identify norms is through “modeling,”
which involves learning through observing another member’s behavior.

Some norms are in the bylaws, constitution, minutes, and/or other documents of a
group or organization. For example, there may be guidelines for placing an item on the
agenda, the duties and responsibilities of the officers, and the decision-making procedures
for resolving crucial issues. Furthermore, norms can take the form of role expectations

117 Understand the Importance of Group Norms, and Comprehend How Norms Are Formed

that can be official or unofficial. Officially, the chair of a group is expected to call and run
meetings; the secretary keeps minutes. Unofficially, a wealthy member is expected to make
donations when the group needs funds. Likewise, a member who is skilled at reducing ten-
sion is expected to ease the tension level when it gets too high.

Some norms develop less formally through nonverbal communication. For example,
the leader of a therapy group may shake her head in disapproval of one member mimicking
another. The other members note the gesture and then individually (without discussion)
decide not to mimic anyone in the group in the future.

Some norms become known only after they are violated. Napier and Gershenfeld give
an example:

A minister may preach about justice and racial equality and may urge his congregation to
live according to these principles, all of which they accept from him. However, when he
marches in a picket line, the congregation may rebuke him for transcending his position.

EXERCISE 4.5 Group Norms in This Class

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in identifying group norms and understanding the processes that led to their
development.

1. Specify the group norms that exist for proper behavior in this class.

2. Identify the processes that occurred that led to these group norms. (For example, the department may have standards for
acceptable behavior in a class; the Code of Ethics of the National Association of Social Workers has statements on confidentiality,
honesty, and opposition to making racist and sexist remarks. The Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards of the Council
on Social Work Education has statements on diversity, promoting social and economic justice, and advancing human rights.
The instructor may have made statements about proper behavior in this class. Some students may have made statements
about what they view as offensive remarks and behaviors.)

CHAPTER 4: Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 118

He may be sanctioned with a statement to the effect that ministers may preach about justice
and equality, but action on social issues is for others. In this situation, neither the minister
nor the congregation knew the norm existed until an action took place that was contrary
to the norm; the congregation then made known the violation by the threat of sanctions.15

New norms may develop from suggestions on group policy or procedures made by group
members. For example, a member may suggest, “In order for an item to be placed on the
agenda, the members must be informed of it at least 48 hours prior to the meeting to give
them an opportunity to think about it.” If the group approves of the suggestion, it becomes
a policy and a norm.

LO 6 Identify Group Pressures to Conform

CONFORMITY
Conformity means yielding to group pressure. To conform, a group member must experi-
ence conflict between the influences exerted by the group (group norms) and his or her
personal values. A member experiencing this type of conflict has two options: announce an
independent position or conform by agreeing with the group’s position in either an expedi-
ent or a true manner. The expedient conformer can outwardly agree but inwardly disagree,
whereas a true conformer agrees both outwardly and inwardly.

There have been a number of classic studies of conforming behavior. Sherif examined
what has been called the “autokinetic effect” of conformity.16 In his experiment, subjects in a
darkened room were asked to judge how far a dot of light moved. Although the light appeared
to move, it actually did not (the autokinetic effect). Each subject saw the dot of light and
made a series of individual judgments as to how far it moved. The subjects were then brought
together in groups of three to judge how far the light moved. Their judgments tended to
converge into a group standard. Later, when they again viewed the light by themselves, they
tended to retain the group standard as their answer. The essential finding was that when a
situation is ambiguous and there is no objective way of determining the “right” answer, mem-
bers rely on the group to help define reality. In real life, this finding means that membership
in a group determines much of what individuals will see, learn, think about, and do.

Asch also examined conforming behavior and investigated what happens when an indi-
vidual’s judgment conflicts with that of other group members.17 The experiments involved
two sets of cards, as shown in Figure 4.1.

Subjects from psychology classes who volunteered for the experiment were arranged
in groups of seven to nine. They were seated at a table and asked to state in turn which
line was closest in size to the standard. In the control groups, practically all subjects chose
Line 2. The responses in the experimental groups, however, were of greater interest. In the
experimental groups all of the group members except for one subject were accomplices of
the experimenter. The subject was always seated so that he would give his opinion last. All of

Standard Comparison Lines

1 2 3

FIGURE 4.1 Cards in Asch Conformity Studies

119 Identify Group Pressures to Conform

the accomplices chose the same wrong line. When it came to the subject’s turn, he was faced
with relying on his own judgment or conforming to the group’s judgment, even though he
probably perceived it as wrong. In a variety of similar studies, Asch found that more than
one-third of the subjects conformed to the group judgment. Such a high level of conformity
is amazing considering there was no overt group pressure to conform, the situation was not
ambiguous, and the subjects did not know each other.

According to Schachter, everyone has a need to evaluate the “rightness” of feelings,
opinions, values, and attitudes, as well as the extent of abilities. He conducted studies to
demonstrate that in the absence of objective, nonsocial means of evaluation, a person will
rely on other people as comparative points of reference. He called this the theory of social
comparison. Studies by Schachter and Singer provide support for this theory.18 Subjects
were aroused by an injection of adrenaline and then exposed to the actions of a peer.
In some cases, the peer (actually the experimenter’s confederate) behaved in a highly
euphoric manner, whereas for other subjects he acted as if he were angry. The experi-
menters predicted that those subjects who did not have an appropriate explanation for
the physiological sensations aroused by the drug (because they had been uninformed or
misinformed about the drug and its effects) would imitate the inappropriate behavior of
the confederate and interpret their feelings in a manner consistent with the confederate’s
behavior. The predictions were confirmed. Furthermore, the control subjects, who were
either informed of the effects of adrenaline or did not receive the injection, displayed few
imitative responses of the confederate. To a large extent, then, the peer defined social
reality for the experimental subjects (that is, those subjects injected with adrenaline who
did not receive an explanation of the physiological sensations aroused by the drug).

Numerous conclusions have been drawn from conformity research and are summa-
rized as follows19:

1. Group pressure influences behavior, even when the bogus group consensus is obvi-
ously wrong. In one study, for example, 50 military officers were asked to indicate
which of two figures shown side by side, a star and a circle, was larger in area. The
circle was clearly about one-third larger, but under group pressure, 46% of the officers
agreed with the bogus group consensus that the star was larger.

2. Many people can be pressured into yielding on attitudes and opinions even on
personally significant matters. For example, the same 50 military officers were
asked, first privately and then later under group consensus conditions, to consider
the statement: “I doubt whether I would make a good leader.” In private, none of the
officers expressed agreement, but under unanimous group pressure, 37% expressed
agreement.

3. Although yielding occurs more often on difficult, subjective items than on easy,
objective ones, there are extremely large individual differences. A few people yield on
almost all items, a few on none. Most yield on some and not on others.

4. When people are retested privately on the same items some time later, a major part of
the yielding effect disappears because the person tends to rely on personal judgment.
Yet a small part of the yielding effect remains, indicating group pressure can change
attitudes.

5. As a group increases in size, the pressure to yield increases and more yielding occurs.
When a person is opposed by only one other person, there is very little yielding.
Yielding is markedly reduced when a person has the support of one other person
(a partner) in the group.

Apparently, a dissident opinion has a tremendous effect in strengthening the independence
of like-minded people.

In a dramatic study involving conformity, Milgram demonstrated that subjects in an
experimental situation would administer electric shocks of dangerous strength to another
person when instructed to do so by the experimenter.20 (The other person, unknown to the
subject, did not actually receive the electrical shocks.) Even when they were instructed to
give increasingly strong shocks and the victim protested in anguish, most subjects followed

CHAPTER 4: Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 120

the experimenter’s orders. This series of studies on obedience demonstrated that people will
yield to “authoritative” commands even when the behavior is incompatible with their own
normal moral standards of conduct. Milgram suggested that his studies help us understand
why the German people complied with the unethical commands of Hitler. Group pressures,
especially when viewed as authoritative, have a tremendous effect on a person’s actions,
attitudes, and beliefs.

Idiosyncrasy Credits Every member of a group gains credits (and increased status) by
exhibiting competence and conforming to the expectations applicable at a given time. Even-
tually, these credits allow a person to break the norms and rules of the group without being
chastised. To some extent, after credits have been accumulated, nonconformity to general
procedures or expectations serves as a confirming feature of one’s status and further enhances
one’s position. Yet there is a limit to the number of idiosyncrasy credits awarded. Noncon-
formity beyond this limit will result in a dramatic decrease in status and perhaps even in
rejection by the other group members.21 For example, a star basketball player at a college may
eventually be kicked off the team if he or she continues to be arrested for criminal activity.

EXERCISE 4.6 Your Yielding to Group Pressure

GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you understand that all of us have yielded at one
time or another to group pressure. The exercise also helps you understand your feelings about
yielding.

1. Describe a group that you participated in, in which you yielded to group pressure. Specify
the issue or action that you yielded to. (If you have difficulty in identifying a time when you
yielded, feel free to identify an issue in which you yielded to pressure from your parents.)

2. Specify your thoughts and feelings during the time when you yielded. Also specify your
thoughts and feelings after you yielded.

3. If you had to do it over, would you still yield? Why or why not?

EP 1b

121 Identify Group Pressures to Conform

Do’s and Don’ts of Norms
Norms should be established that will improve the group’s capacity to function effectively,
such as starting meetings on time or cooperating rather than competing. Because norms
exist only to allow the group to function effectively, nonfunctional norms should be identi-
fied and then either discarded or replaced with more appropriate standards. In some set-
tings, it is desirable to write down crucial norms. In group homes for delinquent youths, for
example, all the rules about smoking, drinking, curfew hours, attending school, and domes-
tic duties should be posted so that the residents are fully aware of them. The consequences
of violating these norms should also be clearly written out.

Important norms should be enforced immediately after a violation and as consistently
as possible. If norms are not enforced, they will lose their effectiveness, and a new norm
(that it is OK to break such a rule) may begin to emerge. In most social service settings,
social workers must follow through on consequences when clients violate important norms.
Social workers lose their credibility with clients when consequences do not follow viola-
tions. Most centers serving runaways, for example, clearly spell out that residents cannot
use alcohol or drugs while at the center. Residents who do are asked to leave. In one center,
workers failed to expel a resident caught using alcohol, and the next day most of the resi-
dents were drinking beer.

EXERCISE 4.7 Understanding Idiosyncrasy Credits

GOAL: This exercise is designed to show you the effects of idiosyncrasy credits.

1. Describe someone’s behavior that violated the norms of a group to which you belong or belonged. (Perhaps it was during a
time when you went out for a night on the town with a group of friends.)

2. Was this norm-violating behavior tolerated by the other group members, or did the group reject this person? If the behavior
was tolerated or excused by the other group members, was it because this person had idiosyncrasy credits? If “yes,” what were
the bases of these credits (such as “he or she does many positive things for the group”)?

CHAPTER 4: Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 122

Group leaders should personally attempt to model the norms they believe are impor-
tant. At a group home, for example, residents will not keep their rooms clean if the group
leader’s office is a mess.

Problems of Conformity
Hostile or disruptive members who fail to conform to group norms may be present in any
group, even in those where membership is voluntary. However, they are more likely to be
found in involuntary groups. Involuntary members often (at least at initial group meetings)
wish they were a thousand other places than at the meeting. They may be angry and believe
the time spent in the group will be completely wasted.

An involuntary client is one who is compelled to be a recipient of a social worker’s
(or another professional person’s) services. For example, an individual may be required to
be a recipient by a court order, by incarceration, or by family or employer pressure.

The following are a variety of settings in which social workers encounter involuntary
clients: correctional institutions, protective services, mental health facilities, certain public
schools, group homes, residential treatment facilities, nursing homes, and hospitals. In each
of these settings, social workers may be expected to lead groups of unwilling clients.

LO 7 Identify Various Types of Hostile or Disruptive
Group Members, and Comprehend How
to Handle Disruptive Group Members

TYPES OF DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR
Unwilling group members can display counterproductive behavior. To more vividly
describe some of these disruptive behaviors, we will look at the behaviors as if they were
characters or personalities.

The Bear
This person openly expresses anger, rage, frustration, resentment, and hostility. The bear
may be unhappy as a member of the group or with what is happening in the group. Dis-
content can be expressed in a variety of ways: verbally, by attacking other members of the
group; nonverbally, by facial expressions; or physically, by aggressively pushing and shoving
another member.

The bear who directly expresses unhappiness in an active fashion can also express
unhappiness in passive-aggressive ways through indirect aggression. Bach and Wyden
have called indirect aggression “crazy-making.”22 Indirect aggressors maintain a front of
kindness but find subtle, indirect ways of expressing their anger, rage, or frustrations.
Bach and Wyden label direct aggression “clean fighting” because feelings are expressed
openly and can be identified and resolved. “Dirty fighters” use indirect tricks and never
clearly express their feelings, which often causes a great deal of pain and can destroy
effective communication in a group. Most disruptive behaviors involve an element of
indirect aggression.

If you have a relationship with a “dirty fighter,” he or she will identify what will “press
your buttons” (that is, “get your goat”). When the “dirty fighter” is angry or frustrated with
you, he or she will casually and subtly “press these buttons” to get you going.

The Eager Beaver
This person volunteers to do crucial tasks but has little intention of completing them and is
simply seducing other members into believing he or she is a willing contributor. The eager
beaver may partially perform some of the tasks to show good faith, but then employ a vari-
ety of excuses to explain why the tasks cannot be completed on time.

EP 7b
EP 8b

123 Identify Various Types of Hostile or Disruptive Group Members

The Clown
This disrupter is rarely serious. He or she is always joking and clowning around, even when
the other members want to be serious. A clown inhibits other members from expressing
their thoughts and feelings because they fear they may be ridiculed.

The Psychoanalyzer
Continual analysis of what other members are doing and saying is the psychoanalyzer’s
forte. He or she often uses psychological terms and delights in analyzing what others really
mean and what is wrong with them. The psychoanalyzer often slows down a group by get-
ting members to engage in mind reading rather than task completion. Other members are
inhibited from expressing their thoughts and feelings; they fear they may be analyzed as
having psychological problems.

The Withholder
A withholder has important information or resources that would help the group accom-
plish its task but intentionally withholds assistance. He or she is more interested in watching
the group struggle and spin its wheels.

The Conformity Power of Groups

The power of groups over individuals is great, as shown by the
following examples.

On February 4, 1974, Patty Hearst, a college student and
daughter of a wealthy publishing magnate, was kidnapped
by the Symbionese Liberation Army, an ultraradical group.
She was forcibly dragged from her home in Berkeley, Califor-
nia, taken to a house by her abductors, and placed in a closet.
For several days, she remained in this closet with no lights.
She was blindfolded, her hands were bound, and she was
given food but was unable to dispose of her body wastes.
Besides making constant threats against her life, her captors
told her that her family had abandoned her by not comply-
ing with the kidnap demands. She was informed that her par-
ents said it was all right with them if she was put to death. At
times, Patty was also sexually assaulted by her captors. After
a number of weeks passed, she was released from the closet.
A few days later she was taken to a bank where (according
to Ms. Hearst) her captors forced her to participate in a bank
robbery. She was given a gun to use during the robbery, and
one of her captors (armed with a gun) kept an eye on her.
After this robbery, she was taken back to her place of captiv-
ity and informed that she was now guilty of bank robbery
and murder, and that the Federal Bureau of Investigation
(FBI) would shoot her on sight. For the next several months,
Ms. Hearst conformed because of this pressure and joined
her captors in committing additional crimes and in trying to
avoid apprehension by the police. After her apprehension,
19 months later, she claimed that she had committed bank
robbery and other crimes because she was brainwashed by

her captors. She was given a light prison sentence for her role
in the robberies.

In the 1960s, Jim Jones, a minister, started a religious com-
mune called the People’s Temple Movement in San Francisco,
California. Gradually, the members were asked to give all their
personal property to the People’s Temple. In return, the Temple
provided food, shelter, social services, and social and spiritual
programs. Jones had considerable charisma and was successful
in seducing the members to center their whole lives around the
Temple and its activities. To gain further control over his follow-
ers, Jim Jones took them to an isolated area in the jungles of
Guyana, South America. Rumors that the members were being
sexually and physically abused and were being treated as slaves
filtered back to California. In response to these complaints, Con-
gressman Leo Ryan and a small staff went to Guyana to inves-
tigate the People’s Temple Movement. Jim Jones ordered Ryan
killed so that he could not report on the abuses he saw. Ryan
was shot to death. Jim Jones then concluded that the United
States would take strong retaliatory action and urged his follow-
ers to take their own lives en masse so they could be reunited in
paradise. More than 900 men, women, and children committed
mass suicide by drinking a fruit punch containing cyanide.

The power of conformity is also exhibited in religious cults
such as Hari Krishna, ISIS, and Scientology, whose members are
able to convince middle-class youths to join and forgo their
education, career goals, families, and material possessions.

SOURCE: Adapted from “Patty’s Own Story,” Wisconsin State Journal
(September . 24, 1975): 1–2.

CHAPTER 4: Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 124

The Beltliner
Everyone has a psychological “beltline” under which are subjects that he or she is extremely
sensitive about. Beltline items may include physical characteristics, intelligence, past behav-
ior, past unhappy events, or personality characteristics. An overweight person, for example,
may be highly sensitive about comments related to obesity. Members who make subtle neg-
ative comments about the sensitive areas of other members threaten group cohesion and
morale. A beltliner is a dirty fighter.

The Guiltmaker
A group member may attempt to control others by making them feel guilty. The guiltmaker
traps the group into helping him or her with personal needs and goals, rather than work-
ing toward group goals. The guiltmaker uses such common expressions as “Yon never do
anything for me” and “All I’ve done for you and this is the thanks I get” to trigger the guilt
response.

The Catastrophe Crier
By exaggerating the seriousness of a problem, a catastrophe crier would have group members
believe that consequences will be not minor, but disastrous. Because the catastrophe crier
focuses only on examining the severity of the problem and not on developing and imple-
menting problem-solving approaches, he or she intensifies a problem rather than solving it.

The Subject Changer
This person does not want a group to deal with crucial issues or with controversy and con-
flict. When difficult situations arise, he or she tries to change the subject. If successful, a
subject changer prevents the group from dealing with crucial topics. There are a variety of
reasons for seeking to change a subject. For example, the changer may detest heated debates
or may fear the debate will reveal something he or she wishes to keep hidden.

The Whiner
A whiner continually complains about one thing or another without taking action to resolve
the problem. Because the whiner seeks attention and sympathy from other members, he or
she slows down a group in accomplishing its tasks.

The Benedict Arnold
If a group is competing with another group, a betrayer, or “Benedict Arnold,” supplies
confidential information to the other group. This person may encourage people outside
the group to ridicule or disregard it or slyly have the group’s funding cut back. Inside the
group this member may attempt to prevent the group from accomplishing its goals. People
appointed to head departments at state and federal levels, for example, are expected by the
public to be voices for the growth and progress of those departments. But some appointees
have betrayed this trust by a hidden agreement with the appointers to be a “hatchet man”
and cut the services and funding requests of their departments.

The Trivial Tyrannizer
Instead of honestly sharing concerns, frustrations, and discontent, this member annoys a
group with constant interruptions and digressions. He or she may arrive late for meetings
and leave early, fail to show up for crucial meetings requiring everyone’s attendance, or
bring up concerns that the group has already acted on. Besides raising trivial questions
about the wording of the minutes, for instance, this person may yawn or read something
when other members are speaking.

The Shirker
A group member may be disruptive simply by failing to do anything for the group. When
assigned certain tasks, the shirker will evade these responsibilities by using a variety of
excuses.

125 Identify Various Types of Hostile or Disruptive Group Members

The Power Grabber
A power grabber may attempt to become the group leader or the power source behind the
group leader by convincing other members that he or she has more expertise than anyone
else in the group or by buying the support of others with money, favors, or promises. A
power grabber may create conflicts that make the leader look bad and sabotage the efforts
of the leader, even though he or she may not assume leadership power.

The Paranoiac
Because he or she is excessively or irrationally suspicious and distrustful of others in the
group, the paranoiac always feels picked on. Much of this person’s time is spent defending
himself or herself and finding fault with other group members. Paranoiac individuals often
feel that other members must be discredited before they can amass enough evidence to
discredit the paranoiacs.

It should be noted that some disrupters are intentionally aware of the effects of their
behavior. Most of the previous examples are of this type. On the other hand, some disrupters
are acting out of unconscious personal needs and therefore may not be aware their behavior
is having a disruptive effect. The following suggestions on handling disruptive behavior
apply whether the disrupter is aware or unaware of the effects of his or her behavior.

HANDLING DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR
Hostile and disruptive behavior can be handled in three basic ways: (1) members can be
allowed to continue to be disruptive and the effects can be ignored or minimized; (2) the
leader can confront members about their disruptive behavior; and (3) other group mem-
bers can confront the disruptive behavior. The approach chosen should be based on what
method will be most helpful to the group.

Minimizing Disruptiveness
If a disruptive group member is allowed to express discontent to the group, he or she may
become less disruptive as time goes on through a ventilating process. When a member is
disruptive, it is often helpful for the leader to ask the person tactfully to express his or her
concerns. The group may then decide to deal with the concerns, especially those that are
legitimate. With some concerns resolved, the disruptive group member may become more
satisfied with the group and begin to feel the group has something to offer.

Let us assume, for example, that a man is angry and embarrassed about being sent to
“Group Dynamics,” a group consisting of people found guilty of driving while intoxicated. This
man may be angry that he got a ticket, whereas others who drink and drive have not been caught
and “sentenced” to the group by a judge. At the initial meetings, he may aggressively ask a litany
of questions: “What is the purpose of the group?” “What evidence is there that the group will
do any good?” “What does one have to do in the group to pass?” “What qualifications does the
group leader have for leading this group?” “Has the group leader ever been intoxicated while
driving?” “If not, how can the leader understand what the members are thinking and feeling?”
“If so, how can the leader be hypocritical by attempting to ‘play therapist’ when he or she has
similar problems?” “Will members be forced to reveal personal things?” “What is the purpose
of each of the group exercises?” “Does the leader believe the people in this group are drunks?”

The leader can handle these concerns by allowing this man to air his views and by
providing honest answers. Furthermore, the group leader may acknowledge that he or she
would also be angry if placed in that member’s position. This approach seeks to allow mem-
bers to ventilate their concerns, to answer their questions, and to convey understanding of
their unhappiness. The goal is to create an atmosphere in which the group will be receptive
to the content and exercises that will make the group effective.

Most of the time, my first strategy in responding to a disgruntled group member when he
or she voices a concern is to “kill that person with kindness.” I seek to convey that the disgrun-
tled person has a legitimate concern (or at least a partially legitimate concern), which often
leads that person to feel validated. Usually, once the disgruntled person feels validated, she or
he will “buy into” what the group is trying to accomplish and then make positive contributions.

CHAPTER 4: Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 126

Leader Confrontation
The group leader can confront the member about his or her disruptive behavior, either with
other group members present or at a private meeting. The choice of private or group con-
frontation should be based on which will be most beneficial. If other members are present,
they may be able to elaborate on the ways in which the member’s behavior is disrupting the
group and emphasize the seriousness of the problem. A disadvantage of group confronta-
tion is that a hostile member may feel he or she is being “ganged up on.”

During a confrontation, the group leader should seek to fully and assertively express
concerns in a nonblaming way by using I-messages (see Chapter 5 for I-messages and
Appendix 1: Module 2 for assertiveness).23 Some confronters make the mistake of primarily
using the two types of you-messages: solution and put-down messages. Solution messages
order, direct, command, warn, threaten, preach, moralize, or advise. Put-down messages
blame, judge, criticize, ridicule, or name call.

I-messages consist of a nonblaming description of the effects of the disruptive mem-
ber’s behavior on the group or on the leader. The group leader simply tells the member
which behavior is disruptive and then leaves it up to that member to take responsibility for
changing it. I-messages generally lead to honesty and openness in a relationship, whereas
you-messages usually reduce communication and polarize relationships.

Sometimes simply confronting a member with the disruptive behavior will lead to a
change because he or she may not be aware of the behavior’s negative effects. Once informed,
the member may alter the behavior or reveal reasons for being disruptive. For example, the
disruptive member may be resentful because he or she has not been assigned more responsi-
bilities in the group. Assigning that person more tasks may lead not only to a cessation of the
disruptive behavior, but also to him or her becoming a contented, productive member. When
concerns underlying the disruptive behavior are resolved, it often ceases. In such a confronta-
tion, the leader must tactfully ask questions to identify the reasons for the disruptive behavior.

However, confrontation may not always stop the behavior, for the disrupter may either con-
tinue along the same line or switch to another method of disruption. A “clown,” for example,
may become a “subject changer” or a “betrayer.” If the disruptive behavior continues after a con-
frontation, the group leader can either ignore the disruptive behavior as much as possible and
minimize its effects or confront the member again. In choosing the second alternative, the group
leader must clearly inform the member that adverse consequences will result, explain those con-
sequences, and follow through on implementing them if disruptive behavior continues.

For example, a group leader may inform a disruptive member in a court-imposed Group
Dynamics class that he has four choices: (1) to participate in meetings and get as much out
of them as possible; (2) not to participate but to attend in order to meet the court’s require-
ment; (3) to attend and continue disrupting the class, with the court then being informed
of his disruptive behavior; or (4) not to come to class, in which case the lack of attendance
will be documented, the court notified, and that person’s driver’s license possibly suspended.

Some students tend to monopolize a class by rambling on about topics only remotely
connected to what is being discussed. Usually, simply informing them privately about the
rambling and the need to share “air time” solves the problem. However, a few students con-
tinue rambling even after the first confrontation. They are then informed privately that they
must raise their hands before talking and will be called on only once or twice each session,
depending on the class. Furthermore, indicate that if they try to talk before raising their
hands, the class members will be asked if they believe some people are using up too much
class time. If the answer is “yes,” the class will then be asked to set rules for sharing class
time. The second confrontation has always resulted in less rambling.

Group Confrontation
The third approach is to have another group member, rather than the leader, confront the
disruptive member; the same guidelines apply here that were described earlier for such a
confrontation. There are certain situations in which the confrontation is best handled by
someone other than the leader. For example, several years ago a social work department at a
large eastern university recruited someone from another university to chair the department.

127 Identify Various Types of Hostile or Disruptive Group Members

A faculty member in that department had wanted the position and felt cheated. When the
new chair came, this faculty member refused to do any departmental tasks and was at times
verbally disruptive during faculty meetings. Two other faculty members in this department
met with the disgruntled party to explain the reasons he was not selected, to allow him to
express his resentment, and to politely request that he seek to be more cooperative because
it was in everyone’s best interests. This confrontation was quite successful and changed the
disgruntled faculty member’s attitude.

If confrontation is necessary, a decision has to be made by the group leader and by
other concerned members about who should do it. Generally, the decision should be based
on who appears to have the best chances of influencing the disruptive member.

REDUCING THE LIKELIHOOD OF DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR
Group members are less apt to be disruptive when their personal goals are identified and
incorporated into the group goals. By involving all group members in setting goals and
making decisions, the group’s communication, cohesion, and problem-solving effectiveness
are likely to increase. An autocratic leadership style discourages commitment, whereas a
democratic style promotes it. Moreover, autocratic leadership is less satisfying to members
and may lead to disruptive behavior. Group goals that are clear, operational, and measur-
able also tend to increase members’ satisfaction and commitment to the group and reduce
frustrations, as discussed earlier in this chapter.

A cooperative atmosphere leads to higher morale, open and honest communication,
more effective problem solving, and increased group cohesion and satisfaction. As dis-
cussed earlier in this chapter, a competitive atmosphere is more apt to lead to disruptive
behavior.

If some members are disruptive in similar ways, the group can discuss the effects of the
disruptions in a nonblaming way and set “house rules” for handling disconcerting behav-
ior. For example, three or four people who are smoking may be irritating the nonsmokers.
House rules may be established as to when and where smoking may take place. Or some
members may be habitually late. This problem can be discussed, and the group can agree
on some rules regarding meeting times and tardiness.

Disruptive behavior usually decreases if the group leader is well organized, covers
relevant and interesting material, and effectively helps the members reach decisions and
accomplish goals. A group leader should also pay attention to meeting the social/emotional
needs of members and actively strive to have all members participate in making decisions.
He or she cannot play favorites and must follow through on what is initiated. If the group
leader has serious problems in one or more of these areas, discontent and disruptive behav-
ior will probably increase.

The more assertively and competently the leader presents himself or herself, the
more trust and confidence the group members will display. If the leader is aggressive, the
members will usually feel angry or intimidated and respond either aggressively or passive-
aggressively. If the leader is nonassertive, the members will tend to have a low level of confi-
dence in the leader and may begin asking whether a new leader should be selected.

If a group is not functioning well, the leader should confront the group with his or
her concerns and ask the group to help identify the reasons so that changes can be made.
Depending on the circumstances, these can be identified at a group meeting or through
written reports that ensure anonymity. Using this confrontational approach, the leader com-
mits himself or herself to working with the group to make changes. For example, I taught a
practice course in which hardly anyone was asking questions or making comments. During
the fifth week of the class, I confronted the class in the following manner: “I think we’ve
got a problem. This is the fifth week of this practice class, and no one is saying anything. To
make this class go, we need to start talking. One of the first skills that social workers need is
the ability to talk. I’m not convinced that people in this class can talk. So far, it’s been mainly
me that’s been talking. Now, I’m going to shut up and let you talk. I want you to tell me why
you’re not talking. I’m a big boy. 1 can take whatever you have to say.” After a few minutes of
silence, some students began talking, and we ended up having a lively discussion. Basically,

CHAPTER 4: Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 128

EXERCISE 4.8 Handling Disruptive Behavior
of a Group Member

GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you better handle the disruptive behavior of a group member.

1. Describe the disruptive behavior of someone who was also a member of a group in which you were involved.

2. How did the disruptive behavior affect the group?

3. What actions (if any) did the other group members take to attempt to minimize the effects of the disruptive behavior? Were
these actions effective?

4. If the actions were not effective, review the material in this text on handling disruptive behavior. What actions might have
been taken by you (or by other group members) to more effectively handle the disruptive behavior?

129 Summary

the students said I was primarily lecturing, which led them to be passive, and they requested
exercises to try out the theories and principles I was presenting. In future classes, I adjusted
my teaching approach to include exercises. After this confrontation, the students became
more verbal in future sessions (though still not as verbal as I desired).

When members are forced to attend a group they do not want to attend, as in the case
of involuntary clients, the group leader may begin by saying something like, “I know most
of you really don’t want to be here, and I wouldn’t either if I were forced to come. I wonder if
we might begin by talking about your anger and unhappiness about being here?” Then the
group leader should attempt to convey the purposes of the group, what is going to happen,
and how the members can satisfy the minimal requirements for “passing.” The group leader
can mention that members can (1) choose to actively participate and get as much out of
the group as possible; (2) remain silent and listen to what others have to say; (3) vent their
anger and unhappiness in disruptive ways (which will probably anger and alienate others in
the group); or (4) refuse to come, which will have certain consequences. The group leader
can then indicate that he or she cannot control their behavior, so the choice among these
alternatives is up to each member. Such an approach almost always leads the involuntary
clients to choose either the first or second alternative, perhaps because such an approach
leads these clients to conclude that the leader is understanding of their anger—and they
then focus on making the best choices in this predicament.

Sometime during the life of the group, one or more members may struggle with the
leader for control. There are a variety of ways to handle a power struggle. (1) The person
(or persons) may be given limited leadership responsibilities. This “second-in-command”
approach may satisfy the member, who may become very helpful. He or she may accom-
plish important group tasks or, in therapy groups, prove to be a useful “co-counselor.”
(2) The group leader and the member desiring to be the leader can meet privately and work
out a shared leadership arrangement to present to the group or identify the changes that the
member would like to see made. (3) The leader may display in a tactful manner (through
words and actions) that he or she is the person best qualified to lead the group. (Following
this strategy, a political campaign-like atmosphere sometimes occurs, with the leader and
the aspiring leader acting as competing candidates, both seeking to impress other group
members with their leadership qualifications.) (4) The group leader can resign, ask the
members whom they wish to have as their leader, and indicate that he or she would again
take the position if the group so desired. (5) Another strategy is to ask for a vote of confi-
dence. If a majority vote of support is not received, the group leader promises to step down.
By rallying resources and supporters in a display of strength, a group leader can usually
show the aspiring leader that a takeover attempt is futile. (6) Finally, the group leader can
threaten the aspiring leader with certain adverse consequences. Sometimes these threats
boomerang and motivate the aspiring leader to work harder or are used to convince other
group members that the present group leader lacks moral integrity.

Summary

The following summarizes the chapter’s content in terms of the learning objectives presented at the beginning of the chapter.

1. Set personal and group goals in groups.
All groups have goals, and every individual who joins a group has personal goals.
Procedures for setting group goals were described.

2. Understand and identify hidden agendas.
Some members may have a hidden agenda, which is a personal goal held by a
member (which is unknown to other group members) that interferes with the
group’s efforts.

CHAPTER 4: Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 130

3. Comprehend the differences between competitive groups and cooperative groups.
Groups tend to have either a cooperative or a competitive atmosphere. There are a
number of positive consequences of a cooperative group atmosphere. A competitive
atmosphere is usually destructive. The positive characteristics of a cooperative group
are readily destroyed by a competitive person.

4. Apply the nominal group approach.
A nominal group is a group in which members work in the presence of others, but do
not verbally interact. This approach is a problem-identification technique for designing
or modifying programs and involves meeting with potential users to assess their needs.

5. Understand the importance of group norms, and comprehend how norms are formed.
Group norms are rules that specify proper group behavior. The processes through
which norms are learned and developed are described.

6. Identify group pressures to conform.
Conformity means yielding to group pressure. To conform, a group member must
experience conflict between the influences exerted by the group (group norms)
and his or her personal values. Because group members have a tendency to want to
be accepted and liked by others, there is considerable group pressure to conform.

7. Identify various types of hostile or disruptive group members, and comprehend how
to handle disruptive group members.
Types of disruptive behaviors of group members are identified. Strategies for handling
disruptive behaviors of members in a group are presented, which include minimizing
disruptiveness, leader confrontation of the member engaging in disruptive behavior,
and other group members confronting the disruptive member.

Group Exercises

EXERCISE A: Setting Personal and Group Goals
GOAL: To identify personal goals for this class and to set group goals.

Step 1. The group leader begins by explaining the purpose of the exercise. Then the group leader
should explain what operational and measurable goals are and summarize their importance.

Step 2. Each member makes a list of personal and group goals for the class on a sheet of paper.
The instructor should also prepare a list of group goals for the class.

Step 3. A listing should be made on the blackboard of the personal and group goals sug-
gested by each student (inform students that they have a right to privacy and do not need
to identify their personal goals). The instructor’s list of group goals should also be put on the
blackboard.

Step 4. The class should then discuss the personal and group goals listed on the blackboard and
decide what the goals for the class will be. (The group leader should have previously read the
material in Chapter 6 on procedures for decision making.) In arriving at class goals, it should be
made clear that because the instructor is responsible for the course, he or she may exclude or add
any group goal.

Step 5. After group goals are established, the following questions should be discussed with the group:

1. Are all of these goals operational and measurable? If not, how can they be improved?
2. What difficulties were encountered in setting group goals?

131 Group Exercises

3. Did it take longer than expected?
4. Did anyone become frustrated at some point? Why?
5. How satisfied is the group with the goals that were set?
6. How does the group feel about the instructor having a greater say as to what the group’s

goals should be?
7. Are these goals realistically attainable?
8. Are these group goals compatible with personal goals?
9. Are individuals committed to work toward attaining these group goals?

EXERCISE B: A Sphinx Foundation Grant
GOAL: To observe what happens when some members are cooperative and others are competitive.

Step 1. The group leader explains that the exercise involves setting goals. Students are to assume
that the Sphinx Foundation has awarded $100,000 to the students and faculty in this social work
program to improve the program and/or social services in the community surrounding the cam-
pus. The task of the class is to arrive at recommendations as to how these funds should be used.
The class is divided into three equal subgroups.

Step 2. Each subgroup meets for 15 minutes to develop proposals. A representative then pres-
ents the proposals to representatives of the other two subgroups.

Step 3. The three representatives meet in the center of the room for 15 minutes to present the
proposals to each other and work toward a decision for the class. The three subgroups observe
the negotiations. A subgroup cannot meet with the other subgroups, but members in a subgroup
may talk among themselves. The subgroups may not talk with their representatives, but they may
send written messages.

Step 4. The representatives should next confer with their subgroups for 5 minutes.

Step 5. The representatives then meet in the center of the room for 5 minutes to attempt to reach
an agreement. Next, they meet with their subgroups for 5 minutes. And, finally, they meet again
in the center of the room to seek to reach a final agreement.

Step 6. Discuss the following questions:

1. Was an agreement reached? Why or why not?
2. Did the representatives and the subgroups attempt to be cooperative or competitive? Why?

What were the results of being primarily either cooperative or competitive?
3. Were the proposals primarily designed to benefit students, the department, or social ser-

vices in the community? Why was this particular focus the major emphasis?
4. What are the representatives’ feelings about this exercise? Did the representatives feel pres-

sure from their subgroup? If so, what type of pressure?
5. How were decisions made within each subgroup, and how did the representatives make

decisions?

EXERCISE C: The Nominal Group Approach
GOAL: Demonstrate how to conduct a nominal group.

Step 1. The leader begins by describing what a nominal group is and how it can be used. The
leader then explains that the goal of the exercise is to identify shortcomings in the college’s social
work program by obtaining the views of the participants as to their wants and needs. In a class-
room setting, it is not necessary to obtain a representative cross-section of the group because the
students compose the total population of potential users.

Step 2. The participants are randomly divided into small groups of five to eight students. Each
group should be seated around a separate table. (When tables are not available, classroom desks
can be arranged in groups of five to eight with only limited inconvenience.)

CHAPTER 4: Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 132

Step 3. The leader distributes a sheet of paper containing a question participants must answer in
writing. (An alternative to distributing a sheet of paper is to write the question on the blackboard.)
One question that might be used is the following:

Without mentioning names, what do you see as the
shortcomings of our social work program?

Please—No talking

Step 4. For 15 to 20 minutes, the participants privately list their responses to the question. No
talking is permitted during this time.

Step 5. One member of each group is designated as recorder. The recorder asks each group mem-
ber to state a shortcoming and lists each response on flip-chart sheets with a magic marker in
full view of other members. This process continues until each member has given all of his or her
responses. Listing is done separately for each group. Each response is recorded exactly as each
member states it, and there is no discussion.

Step 6. The flip-chart sheets are then posted on the wall with masking tape near the group
involved. A brief, informal discussion follows and focuses on clarifying what the ideas mean. There
are two different approaches to reviewing the items: (1) all items are made known to the whole
class or (2) each group briefly reviews only the items recorded for its group. Both approaches
appear to work. For smaller groups, the first is usually used. When the total number of listed items
becomes very large, the second approach is generally more effective.

Step 7. Once the participants are familiar with the items on the flip-chart sheets, each is asked to
list on index cards the five items he or she feels are most important.

Step 8. These items are handed in anonymously and then tabulated on the flip-chart sheets, or
each student can simply check five items on the flip-chart sheets with a magic marker. These
results are then briefly discussed with the students. (The instructor may well find it desirable to
share the results with the other faculty in the department, and a faculty meeting may be arranged
to discuss and take action on the highly rated items.)

EXERCISE D: Identifying and Changing Group Norms
GOAL: To give practice in identifying norms that exist in a group and to assess whether some of
these norms should be changed.

Step 1. The group leader explains what group norms are and states the purpose of this exercise.
The class then forms subgroups of three or four students. Each subgroup makes a list of norms
that exist in the class.

Step 2. From this list, the subgroups identify a few of the norms that they would like to see altered
and propose changes.

Step 3. A representative from each subgroup writes its list of norms on the blackboard, circling
the norms the subgroup wants changed.

Step 4. A class discussion follows. Are the subgroups generally in agreement or disagreement
as to the norms that exist in the class? For the norms that are circled, a representative from each
subgroup should state why the subgroup would like to see these norms changed and present
the subgroup’s suggestions for replacing these norms. The class should then discuss whether the
changes are desirable. (Because the instructor has primary responsibility for how the class is con-
ducted, the instructor has the right to veto any suggested change.)

133 Group Exercises

EXERCISE E: An Ornery Instructor
GOAL: To help develop an awareness of norms that exist in the group and to look at what happens
in a group when the leader acts under a new set of norms.

Step 1. This exercise is perhaps best done by the instructor. The instructor begins the class in a
fashion very different from what he or she generally does. For example, the instructor may dress
much more, or much less, formally. If chairs are generally in a circle, they should be put in rows. If
the instructor generally engages in small talk before starting the class, this should be avoided. If
the instructor comes across as a warm person, he or she should attempt to come across as a cold
person. The instructor may take roll, for instance, and announce that from this point forward a stu-
dent’s grade will be dropped one full grade for each missed class period. The instructor may openly
criticize students who arrive late or who otherwise disrupt the class in minor ways. The instructor
may indicate he or she is unhappy with the way the class is going, and therefore new rules will be
implemented: roll call will be taken each day; there will be a quiz every week; each student’s attitude
and participation in the class will now count as 30% of the final grade; any student who fails to take
an exam at the scheduled time or who does not get a paper in on time will receive no higher than
a D in the course; and the students will be graded down severely if they do not participate in class.

Step 2. After 10 or 15 minutes of this uncharacteristic behavior, the instructor should explain the
real purpose of the exercise, which involved the intentional violation of existing norms. The instruc-
tor then asks what the class was thinking and feeling when he or she applied a new set of norms
in the class. The instructor may conclude by stating that norms are very important in guiding the
direction of a group and that significant changes in norms often lead to confusion and resistance.

EXERCISE F: How Group Decisions Affect Values
GOAL: To show how group decisions affect individual values.

Step 1. The group leader explains that the purpose of this exercise is to help students assess their
values. The leader then distributes the following questionnaire, explains that the results will be
anonymous, and instructs students not to talk while filling it out. The class then forms subgroups
of five or six members. The questions are as follows:

1. Do you believe gay and lesbian teachers should be allowed to teach young children?
a. Definitely
b. Probably
c. Undecided
d. Probably not
e. Definitely not

2. Do you believe individuals who have such a profound intellectual disability that they will
never function beyond a 6-month mental age level should be kept alive at taxpayers’ expense?
a. Definitely
b. Probably
c. Undecided
d. Probably not
e. Definitely not

3. Do you believe people have a right to take their own lives?
a. Definitely
b. Probably
c. Undecided
d. Probably not
e. Definitely not

4. Should teenage females be allowed to have an abortion on demand without the consent of
a parent?
a. Definitely
b. Probably
c. Undecided

CHAPTER 4: Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 134

d. Probably not
e. Definitely not

5. Would you allow your child to attend classes at a school that a child with AIDS is also
attending?
a. Definitely
b. Probably
c. Undecided
d. Probably not
e. Definitely not

Step 2. The questionnaires are collected and kept separate for each subgroup. The subgroups are
then asked to discuss each topic and arrive at a single answer for each question. Each subgroup
should be given an additional questionnaire on which to record its answers.

Step 3. After the subgroups have completed Step 2, each member should again fill out the ques-
tionnaire anonymously. Again, the questionnaires for each subgroup should be kept separate.

Step 4. Prior to conducting this exercise, the group leader should arrange to have the instructor
tabulate the results. The results should be recorded according to the following format:

SUBGROUP A

Number of students selecting this alternative

Prediscussion
Replies

Group Decision
Replies

Postdiscussion
Replies

Question 1 a.

Question 2 a.

Question 3 a.

Question 4 a.

Question 5 a.

135 Group Exercises

Step 5. During a break, the responses for all the subgroups are put on the blackboard or en-
tered on a transparency according to the format listed in Step 4. The following questions should
then be discussed: Do the prediscussion replies differ from the postdiscussion replies? If “yes,”
what are the reasons some members changed their views? Do group discussions and group
decisions appear to influence value judgments by students? When students answered the indi-
vidual questionnaire after the group decision, did they feel a conflict between the group view
and their personal values? If “yes,” how did they feel about this conflict, and how did they at-
tempt to resolve it?

EXERCISE G: Confrontation and I-Messages
GOAL: To practice confrontation and using I-messages.

Step 1. The group leader begins by explaining the goals of the exercise. Then I-messages
should be described. I-messages are a nonblaming description of the effects of another’s
behavior on you. In using I-messages, the sender does not necessarily have to use the term
“I”; the key is to describe the effects of another’s behavior on you in a nonblaming way, with-
out being critical or suggesting solutions. (See Chapter 5 for a more detailed description of
I-messages.)

Step 2. The following situations involve confrontation using role-playing, and the “confronter” is
urged to use I-messages. Two different students should be asked to volunteer for each role-play
and are given the following instructions:

Role-play 1. You’re a group leader, and a member of your group has been 10 to 15 minutes
late for every meeting. His habitual tardiness has been disruptive, and you fear that
other members may follow this person’s example and also arrive late. Your task is to
confront this member about being late.

Role-play 2. You’re a group leader, and there has been interpersonal conflict in the group
that is not being dealt with because each time efforts are made to deal with the
conflict, Jim (or Jill) either makes a joke of it or changes the subject. Your task is to
confront Jim (or Jill) about this.

Role-play 3. You’re a nonsmoker, along with most other group members. Jean (or John)
usually sits next to you and frequently smokes a cigarette, which you find increasingly
irritating. Your task is to confront Jean (or John) about this.

Role-play 4. You’re a group member, and the group has been going nowhere because goals
have not been established. The leader appears confused and uncertain about group
procedures. The group is composed of students who are supposed to advise the social
work faculty on curriculum and departmental policies. You are aware that this is the
first group the leader has led. Your task is to confront the leader and explain that you
and other members feel confused and frustrated because it appears that the group has
been floundering.

Step 3. After each role-play, discuss how well each confronter (1) assertively expressed his or her
concerns and (2) used I-messages to express the concerns.

EXERCISE H: Confronting and Being Confronted by Others
GOAL: To practice tactfully confronting a partner about his or her group performance and to
receive feedback on group performance.

NOTE: The instructor should lead this exercise because it may generate strong emotions in the
participants.

Step 1. The group leader explains the purposes of the exercise. Before beginning, the group leader
indicates that some members need to work on controlling their disruptive behavior. The group
leader should also explain that other issues may be brought up in the confrontation.

EP 1b
EP 1c
EP 1e

CHAPTER 4: Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 136

Step 2. Next, each member pairs up with another. The instructor explains that the task of each
student is to confront his or her partner tactfully about behavior related to group performance
that he or she might work on. First, one student is the confronter and the other the listener; then
roles are reversed. The group leader should emphasize the importance of (1) first complimenting
the partner on demonstrated strengths to balance out the negative feelings that may result from
the confrontation, (2) using I-messages, and (3) being tactful and making the confrontation as
positive as possible.

Step 3. After the confrontations, the instructor asks the students how they felt about the experi-
ence and encourages discussion of the positive and negative aspects of the exercise.

Competency Notes

EP 9b Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and
other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the evaluation of outcomes. (pp. 110–112)

The concepts of operational goals and measurable goals allow social workers to assess the quality
of goal statements.

The concepts of cooperative atmosphere and competitive atmosphere allow social workers to
assess an important group dynamic.

The nominal group approach is an important problem-identification technique.

EP 1b Use reflection and self-regulation to manage personal values and maintain professionalism in
practice situations. (p. 120)

This exercise assists students in reflecting about their yielding to group pressure.

The Bear
The Psychoanalyzer
The Guiltmaker
The Clown
The Subject Changer
The Benedict Arnold
The Shirker
The Paranoiac

The Eager Beaver
The Beltliner
The Withholder
The Catastrophe Crier
The Whiner
The Trivial Tyrannizer
The Power Grabber

The group leader briefly summarizes the following ways in which members are disruptive
to suggest areas that the confronting student may want to mention tactfully to his or her
partner.

137 Key Terms and Concepts

EP 8b Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and
other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies.
(pp. 122–129)

This conceptualization of disruptive group behaviors allows social workers to assess disruptive
behaviors in groups and provides suggestions for handling disruptive behaviors in groups.

EP 1b Use reflections and self-regulation to manage personal values and maintain professionalism in
practice situations.

EP 1c Demonstrate professional demeanor in behavior; appearance; and oral, written, and electronic
communication.

EP 1e Use supervision and consultation to guide professional judgment and behavior. (pp. 135–136)

This exercise allows students to practice tactfully confronting a partner on his or her group perfor-
mance and to receive feedback on group performance.

Key Terms and Concepts

Expedient Conformer
Hidden Agenda

Nonoperational Goal
Operational Goal

True Conformer

138

5
Verbal and Nonverbal
Communication

LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
Sigmund Freud noted, “He that
has eyes to see and ears to hear
may convince himself that no
mortal can keep a secret. If his
lips are silent, he chatters with
his fingertips; betrayal oozes
out of him at every pore”1 To be
effective, group members and
social workers must be able to
communicate their thoughts
and feelings accurately. This
chapter will help prepare
students to:

LO 1
Understand a model of
communication.

LO 2
Identify factors that interfere
with the communication
process.

LO 3
Communicate more
effectively.

LO 4
Have an increased
understanding of nonverbal
communication.

All cooperative group interaction, whether verbal or nonverbal, depends upon effec-tive communication. Through communication, members argue, trade insults,
debate issues, arrive at group goals, assume tasks and responsibilities, laugh, and work
out differences. Effective communication occurs between two or more people when the
receiver interprets the sender’s message in the way the sender intended. The meaning of
a communication is the response it elicits in the receiver, regardless of the intent of the
sender.

Strong communication skills are also important for social workers as a way of support-
ing self-care. Social workers who use effective communication skills in expressing their own
needs, asking for help, clarifying their roles in the workplace, interacting effectively and
differently with clients, and giving/receiving support in the workplace report lower levels
of burnout.2

LO 1 Understand a Model of Communication

A MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
Although most people think they understand what communication is all
about, they are not fully aware of the process that goes on whenever people
share ideas. This section will briefly summarize the process. We will begin by
assuming that you, a sender, want to express a thought or a feeling.

The first thing you do is translate your thoughts and feelings into sym-
bols (usually spoken words, but also nonverbal signals) that others can under-
stand. This process is called encoding. Finding the precise symbols to express
what you think or feel can be difficult. The next step is to send the message.
There are a number of ways of sending a message: by letter, e-mail, telephone,
note, spoken word, touch, posture, gestures, and facial expressions. When
your message reaches a receiver, the receiver decodes the message by inter-
preting it in terms of thoughts or feelings that mean something to the receiver.
The completed process is shown in Figure 5.1.

This process is one-way communication, in which a sender directs a mes-
sage to a receiver. Most communication is a two-way process, however, as the
initial sender directs a message to a receiver and the receiver responds. Two-
way communication is diagrammed in Figure 5.2.

With effective communication, what the receiver decodes is what the
sender sends, However, frequently something goes wrong. A friendly joke is
taken as an insult. A subtle request is missed. A constructive suggestion is
taken as a put down.

EP 1b
EP 1c
EP 6a
EP 6b

139 Understand a Model of Communication

Our model identifies the areas in which misinterpretations may occur. First, the sender
may have difficulty putting into symbolic form the thoughts and feelings he or she wishes
to express. Second, the message may not be sent effectively. There may be too much noise
for the sender to be fully heard, or the sender may not speak loudly enough. Although non-
verbal cues tend to be ambiguous, words also have a variety of meanings and may connote
something different from what the sender intends. Third, during the decoding process, the
receiver may misunderstand the sender’s message as a result of several factors, including
physiological factors; individual attitudes, values, beliefs, defense mechanisms, and stereo-
types; and perceptual factors, such as not listening. Later in this chapter, we will take a
closer look at how each of these factors influences communication.

One-Way Communication
Some groups and many corporations use one-way communication. The boss or group
leader gives instructions and orders or makes announcements to the other group mem-
bers, who are not allowed to respond with their thoughts, feelings, and ideas. In one-way
communication, the listener’s role is only to receive the sender’s messages and to carry out
instructions and orders. The advantages of one-way communication are that messages and
instructions are given quickly, and the boss does not have to deal with the questions and
concerns of the listeners. In authority hierarchies, messages are often passed down through
several levels.

Some studies have examined what happens when information is passed through
several people using one-way communication.3 As the message is passed along, it tends
to become more simplified and distorted because of the three psychological processes
of leveling, sharpening, and assimilation. First, receivers reduce, or level, the amount of
information because they recall less information than they receive. In successive mes-
sages, fewer details are mentioned and fewer words are used. Second, a few high points
become dominant and readily remembered, or sharpened, whereas much of the remain-
der is forgotten. Third, the receivers interpret, or assimilate, much of the message in
terms of their own unique personalities and reference frames. This process involves
changing the unfamiliar to some known context, leaving out material that seems irrel-
evant, and substituting material that gives meaning in terms of the receiver’s frame of
reference.

FIGURE 5.1 A Model of Communication

Receiver DecodesSender Encodes Message

FIGURE 5.2 A Model of Two-Way Communication

Receiver Decodes

Sender Encodes

Receiver becomes
Sender and Encodes

Message

Person A Person B

Message

CHAPTER 5: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication140

Directive or Coercive Communication A variation of one-way communication
involves feedback, which McGregor has labeled directive or coercive communication.4
With this approach, a chairperson delivers a message, and group members have an
opportunity to seek clarification. The feedback is limited to determining how well the
members understand the message. When the chair determines that the members under-
stand the message, communication ceases. This type of communication is based on the
premise that the chair’s view on an issue is in the best interest of the group or organiza-
tion. Directive or coercive communication has an advantage over simple one-way com-
munication because a process is in place to determine whether members understand the
message.

Problems with One-Way Communication Some serious drawbacks exist to one-way
and directive communication. The members may have valuable information that could
improve the group’s productivity, but because it is not communicated to the chair, it is never
considered. In addition, the details of the original message are lost, and the original message
is distorted as it is passed from one level to another. These distortions will reduce the coor-
dination between hierarchy levels and sometimes result in ineffective implementation of
the chair’s directives. In addition, the morale of the group and the commitment of members
to carry out the directives are substantially reduced when the members have no input into
the decision-making process. A major defect of U.S. corporations in the past has been that
communication was usually a one-way process. Japanese corporations tended to produce
higher-quality products at lower cost, partially as a result of the positive two-way com-
munication between workers and management. In Japanese companies, workers identify
their concerns and offer suggestions for improving productivity in periodic meetings with
management. (Many U.S. corporations have now moved toward implementing two-way
communication between workers and management.)

Communication Breakdown In one Wisconsin county, two deaf parents whose chil-
dren were placed in foster care almost lost their children permanently due to communica-
tion breakdown. In a one-year period, there were four out of eight courtroom hearings in
which interpreters were not in attendance. When interpreters were present, the judges failed
to ask them of their qualifications to ensure the parents could understand them. The par-
ents were also sent letters informing them to contact case managers via voice telephone or
e-mail; however, “neither parent was given a computer or devices” that could have allowed
them to be able to contact the case manager. When an appropriate interpreter was located,
it was also found that both parents read at or below the second-grade level. Once all aspects
of communication were addressed, the parents were more successful in their ability to get
their children back.5

Two-Way Communication
Some groups use two-way communication, which allows all members to participate fully.
There are numerous benefits to be gained through this type of interaction. Because minor-
ity opinions are encouraged and often expressed, two-way communication improves cohe-
sion, group morale, trust, and openness. Conflicts and controversies are resolved through
higher-quality solutions as the resources and ideas of all the members are pooled. Although
two-way communication is almost always more productive and effective than one-way
communication, it is much more time consuming.

A mistake some new group leaders make is believing they are running an effective
group because they are using two-way communication with members; however, they make
the mistake of only talking with one group member at a time. They tend to have one-on-
one meetings in a group setting instead of getting all group members engaged in the con-
versation. In order to build cohesion and group relationships, it is important for leaders to
encourage two-way communication among group members. The group leader can encour-
age group members to share similar experiences, engage in problem solving, or provide
support through conversation with each other.

141 Understand a Model of Communication

EXERCISE 5.1 The Emotional Effects of One-Way Communication

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in understanding the emotional impact of one-way communication.

1. Describe a situation where someone (perhaps an employer, a parent, or a teacher) used one-way communication with you.

2. How did you feel when you were not allowed to voice your opinion, were not allowed to share your thoughts, and were not
allowed to ask a question?

3. Were you motivated to do what the person who used one-way communication wanted you to do?

CHAPTER 5: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication142

Problems with Two-Way Communication The authority hierarchy also affects two-
way communication because high-status people tend to talk more, and most messages are
directed to high-status members. Often members with little power take few risks and avoid
frank remarks because they fear the consequences. High-authority members are often
reluctant to reveal their limitations and vulnerabilities for fear of appearing weak and unde-
serving of their status. This tendency of high-authority members also reduces honest and
open communication.

When there are sharp differences in status and authority among members, a coopera-
tive atmosphere should be established to encourage the full participation of all members.
Also, if the group is to be effective, group norms must indicate that the ideas and opinions
of all group members are valuable and essential.

Culture and Communication
Social workers are increasingly finding themselves working with more diverse cultures,
with diverse language and communication styles. Intercultural communication is the
“exchange of information or engagement in dialogue among people of different cultures”6
Miscommunication can occur when group members from different cultures have different
expectations for the group process. For example, for some cultures it may be inappropriate
to display emotions in groups. Group leaders who encourage a display of emotions from
these group members may lose respect among these members. Group leaders, especially
those from dominant cultures, need to be willing to educate themselves about cultural dif-
ferences among group members.

LO 2 Identify Factors That Interfere with
the Communication Process

PERCEPTION
Let us go back to the model of communication presented at the beginning of the chapter.
Among the areas in which communication can go awry is the receiver’s perception of the
sender’s message. The message perceived by the receiver depends not only on the encoding
processes of the sender, but also on the receiver’s decoding, or interpretation. For example,
the receiver may add to the sender’s message. If a student of the opposite sex tells you,
“You really look nice today,” you may perceive that the sender is really saying, “I’d like to be
romantically involved with you.” A receiver also may not fully comprehend everything the
sender is saying, just as an undergraduate may not fully grasp all the details of a sophisti-
cated, abstract lecture given by a senior faculty member. Finally, a receiver may distort por-
tions of the message because, for example, it cannot be heard clearly.

What a receiver perceives, then, becomes the message. This message may be fully accu-
rate, partially accurate, or completely inaccurate. An ink blot test demonstrates that there
are huge variations in what individuals perceive in an ill-defined or nebulous communica-
tion. The perception of any sender’s message is based on the receiver’s experiences, the
receiver’s needs, and the sender’s actual message. Because a receiver’s response is always a
combination of what is seen, heard, and happening within the receiver at that moment, it is
unlikely that two people will ever perceive the same thing in exactly the same way.

The Perceptual Process
Because receivers are exposed to much more input than they can possibly handle, percep-
tions are organized to attach meaning to individual experiences. The first step of this pro-
cess is to select data considered important enough to interpret.

Several factors cause receivers to select certain messages and ignore others. For exam-
ple, stimuli that are intense (loud, large, or bright) stand, out; someone who laughs loudly at
a party will attract more attention than people who are quiet. Repetitious stimuli also attract
attention and are widely used by advertisers. For example, Smokey the Bear—who reminds

143 Identify Factors That Interfere with the Communication Process

people to be careful to avoid starting forest fires—has become a symbol through repetitive
advertising. Because a change in stimuli attracts attention, the constant noise level of cars
going by will be tuned out, but any unusual sound will get our attention. Motives often
determine the information selected from an environment.

If an individual is hungry while traveling, he or she is much more apt to notice bill-
boards advertising food and restaurants. If a person has a hobby or becomes an expert
in some area, relevant information is also more likely to be observed. A group member
sensitive about a certain subject is much more likely to pay attention to a comment even
remotely related to his or her sensitive area.

The second step of the perceptual process is to organize data in some meaningful way.
To make sense of human behavior, for example, people will interpret a specific behavior
in terms of their favorite theories. If we believe in psychoanalytic theory, we will attempt
to understand or interpret behavior according to a psychoanalytic model. If we believe
in the principles of cognitive–behavioral theory, our interpretation of the same behavior
will be very different. A psychoanalyst would say that a single woman who becomes preg-
nant has an unconscious desire (such as wanting to hurt her father or mother) that leads
her to become pregnant. In contrast, a cognitive–behavioral specialist would say that she
decided to have intercourse because she believed that the anticipated rewards outweighed
the potential consequences.

Group members constantly select what is important to remember and respond to and
organize messages in order to interpret and react to them. In the organizational process,
past experiences, knowledge of human behavior, beliefs, values, attitudes, stereotypes, and
defense mechanisms lead individuals to hear and see what they want; information that sup-
ports a person’s views is remembered, whereas information that forces individuals to ques-
tion their firm beliefs and attitudes is often ignored or forgotten.

Physiological Influences
Each individual perceives the world in a unique way because of a number of physiological
factors. Although only one world exists “out there,” each person perceives a somewhat dif-
ferent world because of his or her own perceptual hardware.

Taste There are fairly wide variations in the ways people experience taste. Although
there are four basic types of taste—sweet, sour, salty, and bitter—individual taste buds per-
mit considerable variation. Experiments have shown that litmus paper treated with PTC
(phenylthiocarbamide) will taste salty, bitter, sweet, or sour, or have no taste at all, depend-
ing on who tastes it.7 Arguments and discussions concerning the palatability of food often
center on which food tastes better, but the simple fact is that the same food tastes different
to different people.

Smell There are also wide variations in the sense of smell. Odors pleasing to one person
are repulsive to others. Such variations in perception thus affect communication.

Temperature Sensitivity to temperature also varies greatly. Some people may be perspir-
ing at 70° F, whereas others may be shivering. When a person has a fever, his or her percep-
tion of the “ideal” temperature changes, for example, and disagreements over appropriate
temperatures in offices and houses are frequent.

Hearing Noisy environments (factories, rock clubs, airports) have contributed to hear-
ing loss, and people with significant uncorrected hearing losses are apt to miss parts of
communications in a group. Often, they are forced to “fill in” by guessing the sounds they
cannot hear, reading lips, and observing nonverbal communication.

Vision People who are color blind, farsighted, nearsighted, or otherwise visually impaired
perceive objects differently from people who have good vision. Sherri Adler briefly describes
how her poor vision affected communication with her husband, Ron:

CHAPTER 5: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication144

Since I’ve known Ron we’ve had some experiences that have caused communication prob-
lems because of our differences in vision: He has perfect eyesight, and even when I’m wear-
ing contacts he can see better than I can.

A few summers ago we drove to Colorado. I would get angry (and frightened) when he con-
tinuously passed cars on narrow two-lane roads, and he would get mad at me for following
slow-moving cars for thirty minutes without passing. When I explained that I just couldn’t
see as far up the road as he could, we realized that we didn’t see things the same way and that
our safety would be threatened if I was to drive the way he wanted me to.8

Other Physiological Factors Other physiological factors also influence our percep-
tion. If we are relaxed and well rested, we are apt to perceive a joke played on us by a friend
as being humorous, and we are likely to laugh heartily. However, if we are in ill health, under
high stress, fatigued, tired, hungry, thirsty, or nearly asleep, that same joke may not seem
funny. All of these physiological factors have a substantial effect on our perceptions and
the way we relate to people. For some women, the menstrual cycle plays a role in shaping
moods and perceptions, and thus it may affect communication. There is some evidence
that men may also have a 4- to 6-week physiological cycle of high periods and low periods.9
Both males and females have a daily cycle in which a number of changes occur in sexual
drive, body temperature, alertness, tolerance to stress, and mood, largely due to hormonal
cycles.10 Because of these daily changes, the prime time for productive work varies with
individuals.

Sociopsychological Influences
Sociopsychological factors, including defense mechanisms, beliefs, attitudes, values, and
stereotypes, influence what we perceive.

Defense Mechanisms A defense mechanism is a psychological attempt to avoid or
escape from painful conditions such as anxiety, frustration, hurt, and guilt. An individual’s
defense mechanisms are usually activated when he or she faces information that conflicts
with his or her self-image. Defense mechanisms preserve self-concept and self-esteem and
soften the blows of failure, deprivation, or guilt. Common defense mechanisms are briefly
summarized in Figure 5.3.

Although everyone uses defense mechanisms to cope with unpleasant situations,
defense mechanisms can become destructive when a person’s perception of reality becomes
seriously distorted. The following example illustrates how defense mechanisms can severely
distort a message. (Names have been changed in this example.)

Dr. Nystrom was recruited from a different university to chair the social work depart-
ment at a medium-sized Midwestern university. Three weeks after the start of the first se-
mester, four students came to Dr. Nystrom’s office to complain about the teaching of Dr.
Weller, a new faculty member. Dr. Nystrom asked the students to present their concerns to
Dr. Weller, but the students wanted to remain anonymous. Dr. Nystrom then asked the
students to specify their concerns. Next, he informed Dr. Weller of the concerns. Dr. Weller
appeared stunned and said little.

The next day Dr. Weller barged into Dr. Nystrom’s office. “I know my teaching is good,”
she declared. “I spent most of last night trying to figure out what’s happening. It is clear to
me there is nothing wrong with my teaching. I’ve concluded that you are turning students
against me.” (This is rationalization and projection.) Dr. Nystrom was unable to convince
Dr. Weller that he was not turning students against her, and their relationship deteriorated,
Ever since then, Dr. Weller has been convinced that Dr. Nystrom is seeking to have her
contract terminated. Dr. Weller has continued to receive low student evaluations but has
rationalized them with excuses, such as ill health and claiming that faculty in the depart-
ment are turning students against her. This paranoia has had a destructive effect on depart-
mental morale.

145 Identify Factors That Interfere with the Communication Process

FIGURE 5.3 Common Defense Mechanisms

Rationalization: One of the most common defense mechanisms is rationalization, the development of a logical but false explanation
that protects a person’s self-concept. Group members who use this mechanism actually believe the excuses they have dreamed
up. For example, a student who fails an exam may blame it on poor teaching or having to work outside of classes rather than
acknowledging the real reasons, such as not studying.

Projection: By using this defense mechanism, group members can unconsciously attribute their unacceptable ideas and impulses
to others. An example would be a person who wanted to make himself look good by making others look bad. Psychologically,
this person does not want to admit to himself that he has such selfish motives. So he projects the selfishness onto others by
believing they are trying to make him look bad, which then justifies his own negative behavior.

Denial: An individual can escape psychic pain by rejecting or denying reality. When people are confronted with a serious loss, they
are likely to initially deny it. For example, a person can deny that a loved one has died. Many alcoholics deny they have a drink-
ing problem.

Reaction Formation: Group members can avoid facing an unpleasant truth by acting opposite to the way they feel. Individuals who
are angry and cannot admit it to others or themselves often act as if there is nothing wrong. By using the reaction-formation
defense mechanism, sad and lonely individuals can act as if they are the life of the party, laughing and telling jokes. Also, people
at funerals who are grieving deeply may behave as if everything is fine. The defense mechanism of denial is generally involved
in reaction formation, as the individual seeks to deny painful facts, events, or feelings.

Compensation: This mechanism involves offsetting a real or fancied defect of inferiority by creating a real or fancied achieve-
ment or superiority. A recently divorced father may attempt to soften his children’s pain by buying them expensive toys.
Also, just as unhappily married college students can avoid dealing with their marriage by putting all their energies into
their studies, people who have “failed” in their careers and personal life can compensate for their failure by getting “high”
on alcohol and drugs.

Identification: When you were 7 or 8 you had heroes or heroines who you idealized and imitated. Some adults hide their real feel-
ings in certain situations and instead of being themselves imitate someone they admire. The problem with this mechanism is
that people “hooked” on identification cannot respond to a situation genuinely. They deny their real feelings and instead act
as their hero would.

Fantasy: This mechanism involves using fantasy to dull the pain of reality. It is not uncommon, for example, for an unhappy adopted
child to fantasize that her natural parents are exalted, loving people who will one day rescue her. Everyone daydreams, but
most people soon return to reality. Some fantasies, however, endure and have destructive effects. For example, a former client
of mine thought he could bring his deceased mother back to life by bringing female corpses to his home. After digging up
several graves, he was arrested.

Regression: Some adults regress to an infantile or childlike state when ill or in trouble, with the subconscious goal of receiving more
care and attention. When certain group members are confronted about their failings, they shed tears in an attempt to be
excused for not fulfilling crucial commitments.

Isolation: The separation of an object (idea, experience, or memory) from the emotions associated with it results in the person show-
ing no emotion to the object. This mechanism makes it possible for an individual to avoid the pain of anxiety, shame, or guilt.
For example, a person uses this mechanism when discussing a violent act he or she has committed and shows no emotion.

Displacement: This mechanism occurs when hostile or aggressive feelings are vented against safer objects or people rather than
against those who caused the feelings. A husband who has had a frustrating day at work, for example, may verbally or physi-
cally abuse his wife, children, or family pets.

Undoing: When a person feels guilty about some act or wish, she can undo her guilt by acting in a manner that reflects the reverse
of this act or wish. The classic example is an unfaithful spouse who lavishes attention on his or her mate.

Communication That Fosters Defensiveness Gibb has found that we are more
likely to respond defensively to certain types of communication and that defensiveness is
reciprocal.11 If a sender begins to respond defensively, the receiver will react by putting up
defenses, which will then increase the sender’s defensiveness. Gibb has identified six types
of messages that increase a receiver’s defensiveness: evaluative, controlling, manipulative,
indifference, superiority, and certainty.

Any message perceived as evaluative or judgmental increases the receiver’s defensive-
ness. When an individual is being evaluated or rated, he or she is more on guard. In con-
trast, nonblaming communication reduces defensiveness.

Communication meant to control behavior or thoughts also increases defensiveness.
For example, when a salesperson aggressively attempts to sell a product, many customers
react defensively. Gibb indicates that defensiveness is decreased when the sender projects

CHAPTER 5: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication146

a willingness to share in the solution of a problem, for example, “Let’s find a solution that
works for both of us.”

Defensiveness also increases when people discover that someone is trying to manipulate
them. Because people would rather be asked to do something directly than be tricked into
doing it, manipulative communication leads to distrust and defensiveness. An honest request
may not always produce an immediate positive response, but it will lead to more open and
honest communication and support in crucial situations.

Indifference to another person’s feelings and thoughts increases defensiveness by con-
veying a lack of concern and implying that the person involved is not important. Defense
mechanisms then allow the receiver to maintain a sense of value to offset the indifference.
Gibb has found that empathy reduces defensiveness and is much more beneficial to rela-
tionships than indifference.

When someone relates to us in a superior way, we often become angry, tune that person
out, or use defense mechanisms to maintain our self-respect. Some individuals go to great
lengths to cut the superior person “down to size.” Relating on an equal basis is much more
conducive to openness, sharing, and reducing defensiveness. Instructors who relate to stu-
dents as equals, for example, are using better educational and communication methods than
instructors who attempt to impress students with their superior position and knowledge.

The final type of communication that, as Gibb notes, increases defensiveness is
certainty. This type involves messages from people who steadfastly assert that their way
of doing things is the only way or who act as if they have all the answers. Gibb notes that

EXERCISE 5.2 Using Defense Mechanisms

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in better understanding defense mechanisms.

1. Reread the list of defense mechanisms discussed in this section. List the ones that you remember someone else using.
Indicate for each whom the user was (first name only), and describe how this person used the defense mechanism.

2. List the defense mechanisms that you remember using yourself. Describe how you used each of these mechanisms.

147 Identify Factors That Interfere with the Communication Process

people who work hard at demonstrating certainty usually feel insecure and inferior; their
certainty is a reaction formation. In this case, defensiveness can be reduced when openness
to new information and ideas is communicated.

Defensiveness is probably the greatest barrier to effective communication and should
be avoided. Messages should be sent in ways that do not make either senders or receivers
defensive.

Beliefs, Values, and Attitudes Individuals use their beliefs, values, and attitudes to
select, interpret, and organize information. If a member in a group is liked, her comments
receive more attention and support. Dislike sparks disagreement or strenuous opposition.
Sometimes a group member will dislike another so intensely that he automatically votes
against every motion that person makes, even those to his direct benefit.

The importance of beliefs and values in communication can be illustrated with a few
examples. If parents are conservative and strongly opposed to interracial marriages, they
will probably be opposed to interracial dating. A Roman Catholic who strongly opposes
abortions will feel close to a speaker who supports that belief and be repelled by someone
who favors choice. Deeply religious individuals often become threatened when someone
professes that some other religion than theirs is the one, true religion. Finally, people with
different sexual values will usually avoid discussing sexuality with each other.

Beliefs have a major impact on perception and sometimes lead to inaccurate interpre-
tations of a message. For example, some people incorrectly believe that others are generally
attempting to control them or put them down. Under this system of belief, they are apt to
misinterpret general statements, jump to conclusions, and become defensive. Open and
honest communication is unlikely to occur. This type of misinterpretation of messages has
also been called the tendency to personalize messages.

EXERCISE 5.3 Defensive Communication

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in understanding the types of communication that foster defensiveness.

For each of the following types of communication, describe a time when someone used this type of communication with you
and describe your emotional reactions in each situation.

a. Evaluative or judgmental communication:

b. Communication to control you:

CHAPTER 5: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication148

c. Communication to manipulate you:

d. Indifferent communication:

e. Superior communication, which suggested you were inferior:

f. Certainty communication:

149 Identify Factors That Interfere with the Communication Process

Stereotypes Stereotypes are fixed mental images of a group that are applied to all of its
members. Stereotypes may be partially accurate or completely erroneous. You can discover
some of the stereotypes you hold by considering the mental images you get in response to
the following phrases: “a macho male,” “a Republican,” “a welfare mother,” “a policeman,”
“a person who is gay,” “a handicapped person,” “an ex-con.” For most of these phrases, you
probably were able to get a mental picture of such people, and you probably have beliefs
about their lifestyles, values, interests, and attitudes. During your first interaction with
someone who fits into one of these categories, you are apt to respond in terms of your
preconceived expectations. For example, if you distrust and fear police officers, you will
probably be guarded in what you say and do if you meet an officer, and you will be apt to
end the interaction as rapidly as possible.

SELF-DISCLOSURE
One of the main reasons we are not fully understood when we communicate is that we do
not fully express what we are thinking and feeling. We often ponder how much we should
share about our thoughts and feelings. What are the costs and benefits of self-disclosure?

Self-disclosure has been defined as “the process of deliberately revealing information
about ourselves that is significant and that would not normally be known by others.”12 Some
people are overdisclosers in that they either talk too much about themselves or they talk
revealingly about themselves at inappropriate times. If a student social work club is dis-
cussing a proposal for a new course on aging, for example, it would be inappropriate for a
student to indicate that she has periodically thought about suicide. Underdisclosers do not
want others to know them intimately and speak very little about themselves even when
the situation calls for it. An underdiscloser may encourage friends to share their personal
concerns but then refuse to talk personally about herself. Appropriate self-disclosure can be
defined as the right amount of self-revelation at the right time.

The risks of self-disclosure have been described by Jourard: “When you permit yourself
to be known, you expose yourself not only to a lover’s balm, but also to a hater’s bombs.
When he knows you, he knows just where to plant them for maximum effect.” 13 The risks
of self-disclosure include subsequent criticism, laughter, disapproval, or rejection, as well
as a danger that the information may be used against the individual involved. If a student
discloses to a class that he has a drinking problem, there is always the danger that someone
in the class may inform a potential employer.

People fail to disclose appropriately for many reasons. Some may fear closeness, rejec-
tion, and criticism, or they may be ashamed of their thoughts, feelings, or past actions. In
certain instances, disclosure will put pressure on a group member to change; for example, a
person may be reluctant to acknowledge that he has a drinking problem because he knows
that if he acknowledges the problem, pressure will be put on him to give up drinking (which
he does not want to do). Jourard asserts that self-disclosure is necessary for psychological
health and growth because people cannot be themselves unless they know themselves.14
Through self-disclosure people can know themselves better; nonetheless, many cannot or
will not face troubled parts of themselves and so resist self-disclosure.

If thoughts and feelings are not shared, an individual is not accurately communicating
what he or she is really thinking and feeling and will not be fully understood. Honest and open
relationships that are meaningful are based on self-disclosure with people accepting individuals
as they are. A close, meaningful relationship is most likely possible with mutual self-disclosure.

The question of whether to disclose can be answered by following a simple guideline.
Individuals should self-disclose when the potential benefits outweigh the potential risks;
making realistic judgments about the potential benefits and risks is the hard part. A leader
of a therapy group usually should self-disclose if the information will be therapeutic for
group members. For example, if members have drinking problems, a leader who shares her
personal experiences with drinking could provide useful information and increase rapport
with those members who are struggling with their drinking problems. On the other hand,
a leader who is still emotionally involved with a problem usually should not self-disclose,
or group members may view her as a client rather than a therapist. If a leader of a group

CHAPTER 5: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication150

of battered women tearfully relates a sexual assault, members may feel that she cannot be
objective in dealing with their situations.

It is also important to remember that there are degrees of self-disclosure; you do not
have to tell everything. It is possible to share some opinions, feelings, thoughts, or experi-
ences while reserving riskier information. By observing the reactions of the receivers, send-
ers can better determine whether it is in their best interests to reveal more.

What is disclosed should be relevant to the present relationship with the receivers.
For example, a romantic relationship could disintegrate if past sexual relationships were
disclosed. Most people know their partners have had previous sexual experiences, but few
want to hear the intimate details.

The Johari Window
Luft and Ingram developed a graphic model of self-disclosure in groups known as the Johari
(taken from the authors’ first names, Joe and Harry) Window.15 Diagram A in Figure 5.4
represents everything there is to know about you—your needs, dislikes, past experiences,
goals, desires, secrets, beliefs, values, and attitudes. However, you do not know everything
about yourself. You are aware of some things and unaware of other things, as diagrammed
in Figure 5.4(B). In addition, the frame can be divided to show what others know about you
and what others do not know about you, as shown in Figure 5.4(C).

By combining parts B and C of Figure 5.4, we get a Johari Window, as illustrated in
Figure. 5.4(D). A Johari Window divides everything about you into four parts. Quadrant 1
of part D is the open area of yourself—the part of which both you and others are aware. This
area has been referred to as the “public self,” as it represents how one knowingly presents
himself or herself. Quadrant 2 is your blind area, which represents the part of yourself that

EXERCISE 5.4 Feeling Good After Self-Disclosure

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in understanding that self-disclosure is beneficial at times.

1. Describe something personal that you self-disclosed and afterward were glad that you did. Further describe why you were
glad you self-disclosed.

2. Not all self-disclosure is beneficial. Describe your thoughts as to when you should and should not self-disclose.

151 Identify Factors That Interfere with the Communication Process

others are aware of but that you are not. It has been called the “bad breath” area because
although others may know you have bad breath, you do not. Quadrant 3 is the hidden area,
the part you are aware of but others are not. This part has been called the “secret” area, as you
know all kinds of things about yourself that you are not telling the group. Quadrant 4 is your
unknown area, which represents that part of you of which neither you nor others are aware.
A Johari Window can be individualized by moving the boundaries into the position that
best describes a single personality. For example, the Johari Window in Figure 5.5 describes a
man who is very aware of himself but who tends to hide much of himself from others.

Known
to others

Not known
to others

3
Hidden

4
Unknown

1
Open

2
Blind

FIGURE 5.5 A Johari Window Showing a Hidden Personality Type

Everything
about you

Known
to self

Not known
to self

Known
to self

Not known
to self

Known
to others

Not known
to others

3
Hidden

4
Unknown

1
Open

2
Blind

FIGURE 5.4 A Johari Window

CHAPTER 5: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication152

Communication in a group generally follows certain principles. Initially, group members
tend to be guarded and seldom self-disclose; Quadrant 1 of their Johari Windows will be
small. Members test the rules for behavior by barely speaking, giving short answers, and being
careful about what they reveal. But as the group continues, group members usually begin
revealing more about themselves. One common characteristic of groups is that an environ-
ment is eventually created in which members feel safe and protected. After a feeling of trust
develops, members begin to disclose more personal aspects of their lives. As secret, private
information is made public, Quadrant 1 is enlarged and Quadrant 3 becomes smaller.

A key characteristic of the Johari Window is that a change in any one quadrant will
affect all other quadrants. For example, the more personal information is shared, the larger
Quadrant 1 becomes. Quadrant 2 immediately becomes smaller as others know more about
an individual from her self-disclosure. Quadrant 3 may become smaller because others
offer feedback, which reduces the size of the blind area as the individual gets to know more
about herself. Through this self-disclosure and feedback process, parts of an individual that
are unknown may be discovered, which will alter the size of Quadrant 4.

EXERCISE 5.5 Johari Windows

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in learning how to draw Johari Windows.

1. Reread the material on Johari Windows. Draw a Johari Window for someone you know quite well.

2. Draw a Johari Window that represents you.

3. Summarize what each of these windows depicts.

153 Communicate More Effectively

The implications of the Johari Window are that the more information is shared, the
more others know and the greater the feedback. This feedback often leads to greater self-
awareness, more sharing about ourselves, and more sharing on the part of others.

It should be cautioned, however, that self-disclosure is usually best done gradually. If
the first bits of self-disclosure are well received and accepted, the individuals can feel that
it is safe to reveal more. It is generally a mistake to try to build a relationship by imme-
diately divulging all the secrets and private details about oneself. Besides the risk of the
divulged information being used against the self-discloser, there is also the danger that
hasty “undressing” of oneself may scare others away.

LO 3 Communicate More Effectively

HOW TO COMMUNICATE EFFECTIVELY
Given all the factors that can lead to garbled messages, it is important that everyone attempt
to send messages effectively. Numerous suggestions are given in the following sections for
improving communication for both a sender and a receiver.

Sender
If nonverbal and verbal messages match, a receiver can better interpret the information.
Double and often contradictory messages are sent when nonverbal and verbal messages do
not agree. Messages should be complete and specific. If you have to request a special favor of
someone, it is usually desirable to explain why. Also, it is important to specify your request.
Vague or incomplete messages are often misinterpreted.

“Own” your messages by using personal pronouns such as “I” to show that you are
clearly taking responsibility for your thoughts and feelings. When group members “disown”
messages by saying “someone said” or “most people would feel,” it is difficult to determine
whether they think and feel this way or whether they are simply repeating the thoughts and
feelings of others.

Each message should be phrased in a way that is appropriate to the receiver’s frame of
reference. The words you use in explaining the Johari Window to a child should be quite
different from those you use with classmates. Also, supporting verbal messages with hand-
outs, pictures, and written messages will help the receiver understand them. Always ask for
feedback when you are unsure whether the receiver has accurately perceived the message.

Express your concerns to others in nonblaming rather than judgmental or evaluative
terms. Judgmental or evaluative words make others defensive. Note the immense difference
between “I feel put down by what you just said” and “I’m really getting tired of your run-
ning me into the ground—watch it.” The first is apt to foster communication, the second
defensiveness.

Physical factors that interfere with effective communication include chairs in a row
rather than in a circle, poor acoustics, loud outside noises, an unacceptable room tempera-
ture, ineffective lighting, uncomfortable chairs, and too little time allotted to discuss issues.
Reducing the effects of these barriers to communication generally increases the accuracy of
the communication between senders and receivers.

Receiver
Communication is often halted when the receiver takes a message personally. Instead of
jumping to the wrong conclusions, a receiver should ask questions that will clarify the send-
er’s intentions and reasoning. Clarification can be ascertained by paraphrasing the sender’s
message in a question: “Are you saying . . . ?” or “Are you feeling . . . ?” If the receiver imme-
diately disagrees, then the sender may become cautious and defensive, which will interfere
with open and honest communication. It is important to remember that communication
is fostered if you speak up for yourself only after you are accurately aware of the sender’s
message. In resolving an argument, a group leader can use the principle of role reversal.

CHAPTER 5: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication154

The receiver restates the ideas and feelings of the sender accurately and to the sender’s
satisfaction before proceeding to present his or her own views. The receiver should express
the sender’s feelings and ideas in his or her own words rather than parroting or mimicking
the words of the sender. Before indicating approval or disapproval, a receiver should place
himself or herself in the sender’s shoes in order to understand what the sender is thinking
and feeling.

Social workers should be aware that a sender may not have communicated his or her
feelings or meaning accurately or fully. The sender may have chosen the wrong words or
used words that were ambiguous. For example, the phrase “I care about you” has meanings
ranging from “I care about you as much as I care about any human being” to “I’m in love
with you.” In such situations, it is extremely important to seek clarification by asking ques-
tions in a nonblaming, nonevaluative fashion.

Listening Skills
To communicate effectively, it is essential to develop good listening skills. Unfortunately,
many people are caught up in their own interests and concerns, and they are distracted by
those thoughts when someone is speaking to them. Kadushin explains why it is difficult for
an interviewer to develop good listening skills:

The nature of spoken communication presents a special hazard, seducing the interviewer
into an easy nonlistening. The hazard lies in the great discrepancy between the number
of words that are normally spoken in one minute and the number of words that can be
absorbed in that time. Thought is much more rapid than speech. The average rate of spoken
speech is about 125 words per minute. We can read and understand an average of 300–500
words per minute. There is, then, a considerable amount of dead time in spoken commu-
nication, during which the listener’s mind can easily become distracted. The listener starts
talking to herself to take up the slack in time. Listening to the internal monologue may go
on side by side with listening to the external dialogue. More often, however, it goes on at the
expense of listening to the external dialogue. The interviewer becomes lost in some private
reverie—planning, musing, dreaimng.16

Kadushin gives the following suggestions on how to listen effectively:

Rather than becoming preoccupied as a consequence of the availability of the spare time
between the slow spoken words, the good interviewer exploits this time in the service of
more effective listening. The listener keeps focused on the interviewee but uses the time
made available to the mind by slowness of speech to move rapidly back and forth along the
path of the interview, testing, connecting, questioning: How does what I am hearing now
relate to what I heard before? How does it modify what I heard before? How does it conflict
with it, support it, make it more understandable? What can I anticipate hearing next? What
do I miss hearing that needs asking about? What is he trying to tell me? What other mean-
ings can the message have? What are his motives in telling me this?17

Active Listening
Thomas Gordon has developed four techniques that are designed to improve communica-
tion: active listening, I-messages, collisions of values, and no-lose problem solving.18 No-
lose problem solving is described in Chapter 6.

Active listening is recommended when listening to a problem. For example, a mem-
ber in a therapy group says, “I’m fat and ugly—all my friends have boyfriends and not
me.” For such situations Gordon recommends that the group leader (or another member)
use active listening. The steps involved in active listening are the receiver of a message
tries to understand what the sender’s message means or what the sender is feeling, and
then the receiver puts this understanding into his or her own words and restates it for
the sender’s verification. An active listening response to the previous statement might
be, “You want very much to have a boyfriend and think the reason you don’t is related to
your physical appearance.” An active listening response involves either reflecting feelings
or restating content.

155 Communicate More Effectively

Gordon lists a number of advantages of active listening. It facilitates problem solving by
the person with the problem, which fosters the development of responsibility. By talking a
problem through instead of only thinking about it, a person is more apt to identify the root
and arrive at a solution. When a person feels that others are listening, he or she will be more
likely to listen to them in the future. In addition, the relationships between group members
will probably improve, because when individuals feel they are heard and understood, posi-
tive emotions toward others increase. Finally, active listening helps a person with a problem
to explore, recognize, and express feelings.

When first using the technique, receivers may make some mistakes. One is to use the
technique to guide the person with the problem to a solution preferred by the receiver. The
sender will usually then feel manipulated, and the approach may be counterproductive. A
second mistake is to parrot back the words rather than paraphrase the intended meanings
or feelings. For instance, if a member shouts at a group leader, “You stupid jerk,” an appro-
priate response would be “You’re angry with me,” not “You think I’m a jerk.”

I-Messages
Active listening is used when someone else has a problem. Many occasions arise when another
group member causes a problem for you. For example, another group member may irritate
or criticize you. You may remain silent and irritated or send a “you-message.” There are two
types of you-messages: a solution message and a put-down message. A solution message orders,
directs, commands, warns, threatens, preaches, moralizes, or advises. A put-down message
blames, judges, criticizes, ridicules, or name-calls. Examples of you-messages include, “You
stop that,” “Don’t do that,” “Why don’t you be good,” “I hate you,” and “You should know better.”

Gordon asserts that I-messages are better. For example, if a member is loudly tapping
a pencil on a table, an I-message might be, “The tapping of the pencil is irritating to me.”
This example also shows that it is possible to send an I-message without using the word “I.”

I-messages, in essence, are nonblaming messages that simply communicate how the
sender of the message believes the receiver is affecting the sender. I-messages do not pro-
vide a solution, and they do not criticize. The following simple format illustrates how to
phrase an I-message: The sender says to the receiver, “When_____ you (sender identifies
the irritating behavior), I feel_____ (sender describes his or her feelings).” When first prac-
ticing I-messages, a group member might give a put-down, such as “When you act stupid,
I feel hurt.” It is important to redirect this into a nonblaming, nonjudgmental message such
as, “When you interrupt me when I am talking, I feel hurt.” The use of I-statements may
take practice and should be monitored by the group leader to ensure proper use.

Active Listening Example in a Group Session at a Runaway Center

Sixteen-year-old youth: I hate school. I’m no longer going to go.
Counselor: You’re so unhappy with what’s happening at

school that you’re thinking about dropping out.
Youth: Yes, my home life is a shambles, and school isn’t going

well either.
Counselor: It’s really depressing to have both your home life

and school not going well.
Youth: Sometimes, like now, I feel like giving up. I’ve tried

pretty hard to make things better at home and at school.
Counselor: You’re feeling bad because the things you’ve done

haven’t worked out the way you’d like.
Youth: Yes, I got an F on the English paper I got back yesterday.
Counselor: You’re feeling especially bad because of the grade

you got on your English paper.

Youth: Since the commotion at home, my grades have started
to fall.

Counselor: You’re thinking that your problems at home may
be affecting your schoolwork.

Youth: I don’t really want to admit it to myself, but I guess it’s
true. For the last several weeks it’s been harder for me to
concentrate on school.

Counselor: You feel your grades are slipping because you
haven’t been able to concentrate because of what is hap-
pening at home.

Youth: I guess when I’m at school I have to focus more on my
schoolwork. Maybe if I talked to some of my teachers and let
them know what I’m going through, they might be more un-
derstanding. I guess I really don’t want to drop out of school.

CHAPTER 5: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication156

EXERCISE 5.6 Learning to Use I-Messages

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in learning to phrase I-messages. (Note: For this exercise it is highly desirable to later
discuss in class whether your attempts at phrasing I-messages meet the guidelines for stating an I-message.)

Describe an I-message you would use when someone does the following:

a. You are in a car driving with someone who lights up a cigarette. You do not like to be exposed to secondhand smoke for
health reasons.

b. You are riding in a car with someone who is speeding and driving recklessly. You fear an accident may occur.

c. You are trying to sleep. It is 3:00 a.m. and you have two exams in the morning. In a neighboring apartment someone turns on
his or her stereo loudly.

157 Communicate More Effectively

You-messages, such as “you do everything wrong” or “you messed up” are generally
counterproductive because people do not like to be ordered or criticized. You-messages
frequently result in an ongoing struggle between the two people involved.

In contrast, I-messages communicate the effect of behavior much more honestly.
I-messages tend to be more effective because they help the other group member assume
responsibility for his or her behavior. An I-message says that you trust the group member
to respect your needs and to handle the situation constructively. I-messages are much less
likely to produce an argument. They tend to facilitate honesty, openness, and more cordial
relationships within the group.

It should be noted that I-messages will work only if the receiver does not want his or
her actions to adversely affect the sender of the message. If the receiver does not want to
cause discomfort to the sender, the receiver is apt to seek to change his or her adversive
behavior when informed by an I-message of how it is adversely affecting the sender. How-
ever, if the receiver enjoys causing discomfort to the sender, then the use of an I-message by
the sender is apt to result in an increase in the receiver’s adversive behavior, as the receiver is
now more fully aware of how to create discomfort in the sender. (An I-message is an invita-
tion by the sender to the receiver for a dialogue.)

Collisions of Values
Collisions of values between group members are common. Likely areas of conflict include
values about abortion, sexual behavior, clothing, religion, use of drugs, hairstyles, and con-
scientiousness in carrying out assigned group tasks.

Gordon asserts that there are three constructive ways to resolve value conflicts. The
first is to model the values you hold as important. If you value honesty, be honest. If you
value openness, be open. If you are not living according to the values you profess, then you
need to change either your values or your behavior. Congruence between behavior and
values is important if you want to be an effective role model.

The second way is to attempt to be a consultant to the members with whom you are in
conflict. There are some do’s and don’ts for a good consultant. First of all, a good consultant
inquires whether the other person would like to hear his or her views. If the answer is no,
then do not proceed to consult because the other group member will react negatively. If
the answer is yes, be sure you have all the pertinent facts. Then share these facts once so
the other person understands them. Let the other group member have the responsibility
of deciding whether to follow the suggestions. To continue consulting, a person must be
neither uninformed nor a nag.

The third way to reduce tensions over a values issue is to modify your values. By exam-
ining the values held by the other group member, you may realize they have merit, and you
may move toward those values or increase your understanding of why the person holds his
or her values.

Technology and Groups
For many individuals, their main form of communication is done through technology,
whether it be e-mails, text messaging, social media, chat rooms, online classrooms,
or another form. Technology allows individuals from different regions, different time
zones, those who may be homebound or who lack adequate transportation, or many
other factors to be able to communicate through one platform. Individuals in social
work have entered the technology world through providing offline individual/group
counseling, telephone counseling, cyber therapy, self-guided web-based interventions,
social networking sites, e-mails, and text messageing.19 Due to the increasing nature
of the use of technology in social work, the National Association of Social Workers
(NASW) set guidelines for those engaging in these technologies. Group leaders need
to be aware of how technology can affect communication and take necessary steps to
prevent any disruptions or miscommunications that could occur.

EP 1d

CHAPTER 5: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication158

EXERCISE 5.7 Resolving Collisions of Values

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in learning to identify and resolve collisions of values.

1. Describe a situation in your life where you had a serious collision of values with someone.

2. Describe how this situation was resolved. (If it has not been resolved, describe the issues that still need to be resolved.)

3. Review the material on collision of values in this text. Does this material suggest a better way of resolving the collision of
values that you experienced? If it does, please indicate which approach you believe would have been more beneficial for
you to use.

159 Have an Increased Understanding of Nonverbal Communication

LO 4 Have an Increased Understanding
of Nonverbal Communication

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
It is impossible not to communicate. No matter what we do, we transmit information
about ourselves. Even an expressionless face at a funeral communicates something. As
you are reading this, stop for a minute and analyze what nonverbal messages you would be
sending if someone were observing you. Are your eyes wide open or are they half closed?
Is your posture relaxed or tense? What are your facial expressions communicating? Are
you occasionally gesturing? What would an observer deduce you are feeling from these
nonverbal cues?

Nonverbal cues often reveal feelings a person is intentionally trying to hide. Bodily
reactions such as sweating, stammering, blushing, and frowning often reveal the presence
of emotions—fear, embarrassment, or discomfort—that people would rather hide from
others. By developing skills in reading nonverbal cues, group leaders can become more
aware of what others are feeling and how to interact with them more effectively. Because
feelings stem from thoughts, nonverbal cues that reveal what people are feeling also trans-
mit information about what people are thinking.

In literature, perhaps the greatest reader of nonverbal cues was Sherlock Holmes. In
this exchange Holmes deduces the following about his friend Watson:

“How do I know that you have been getting yourself very wet lately, and that you have a
most clumsy and careless servant girl?” . . .

“It is simplicity itself,” said he; “my eyes tell me that on the inside of your left shoe, just where
the firelight strikes it, the leather is scored by six almost parallel cuts. Obviously they have been
caused by someone who has very carelessly scraped round the edges of the sole in order to remove
crusted mud from it. Hence, you see, my double deduction that you had been out in vile weather,
and that you had a particularly malignant boot-slitting specimen of the London slavey.”20

Functions of Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication interacts with verbal communication and can repeat, substitute
for, accent, regulate, or contradict what is spoken.

Repetition Nonverbal messages may repeat verbal messages. A husband may say he is
really looking forward to becoming a father and repeat this happy anticipation with glowing
facial expressions.

Substitution Nonverbal messages may substitute for verbal messages. If you know a
close friend has just failed an important exam, even though she may not talk about it, you
can get a fairly good idea of what she is thinking and feeling by watching her.

Accentuation Nonverbal messages may accent verbal messages. If someone you are dat-
ing says she is angry and upset with something you did, she may emphasize the depth of
these feelings by pounding a fist and pointing an accusing finger. (Accentuation and repeti-
tion are closely related, although accentuation usually involves greater emphasis.)

Regulation Nonverbal messages may serve to regulate verbal behavior. Looking away
from someone who is talking to you indicates that you are not interested in talking.

Contradiction Nonverbal messages may contradict verbal messages. An example is
someone with a red face, bulging veins, and a frown yelling, “Angry! Hell no, what makes
you think I’m angry?” When nonverbal messages contradict verbal messages, the nonverbal
messages are often more accurate. When receivers perceive a contradiction between non-
verbal and verbal messages, they usually believe the nonverbal.21

CHAPTER 5: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication160

EXERCISE 5.8 Interpreting Nonverbal Cues

GOAL: This exercise demonstrates that nonverbal cues may be correctly interpreted as well as misinterpreted.

1. Describe a situation where you correctly interpreted the nonverbal cues of someone.

2. Describe a situation where you misinterpreted the nonverbal cues of someone.

3. When nonverbal cues contradict the verbal message of someone, which message (the verbal or the nonverbal) are you more
apt to believe?

161 Have an Increased Understanding of Nonverbal Communication

The Risk of Misinterpretation Although nonverbal messages can be revealing, they
can also be unintentionally misleading. Think of the times when people have misinter-
preted your nonverbal messages. Perhaps you tend to say little when you first wake up,
and others have interpreted this as meaning that you are angry or troubled. Perhaps you
have been quiet on a date because you were tired or because you were thinking about
something that happened recently—has your date at times misinterpreted your behavior
to mean you are bored or unhappy with the relationship? While deep in thought have
you had an expression on your face that others have interpreted as a frown? Nonverbal
behavior is often ambiguous. A frown, for example, may represent a variety of emotions:
anger, rejection, confusion, unhappiness, fatigue, or boredom. Nonverbal messages should
be interpreted not as facts but as clues to be checked out verbally to determine what the sender
is thinking and feeling.

Forms of Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication may take many forms. We communicate by the way we move,
the expressions we make, the clothes we wear, even by the way we arrange our homes and
offices. The following discussion examines the different avenues of nonverbal expression,
including posture and body orientation, gesture, touch, choice of clothing, control of per-
sonal space and setting of boundaries, facial expression, voice tone and level, personal
appearance, and design of personal environments.

Posture An indication of how much posture can communicate is the large number of
phrases that have posture as a metaphor:

“He can stand on his own two feet.”
“I’ve got a heavy burden to carry.”
“She’s got a lot of backbone.”
“Stand tall.”

In picking up nonverbal cues from posture, it is important to note both the overall posture
of a person and changes in posture. People tend to be relaxed in nonthreatening situations
and to tighten up when under stress. Some people never relax, and their rigid posture
shows it.

The degree of physical tenseness can reveal status differences. In interactions between
a higher- and a lower-status person, the higher-status person is usually more relaxed, the
lower-status person more rigid and tense.22 For example, note the positions that are usu-
ally assumed when a faculty member and a student are conversing in the faculty member’s
office.

Teachers and public speakers often watch the posture of students or people in the audi-
ence to gauge how a presentation is being received. If people in the audience are leaning
forward in their chairs, it is a sign the presentation is going well. If the audience members
are slumping in their chairs, the presentation is probably beginning to bomb.

Body Orientation Body orientation is the extent to which we face toward or away from
someone with the head, body, and feet. Facing someone signals an interest in starting or
continuing a conversation, whereas facing away signals a desire to end or avoid conversa-
tion. The phrase “turning your back” concisely summarizes the message that is sent when
you turn away from someone. Can you remember the last time someone signaled a wish to
end a conversation with you by turning away?

Facial Expressions The face and eyes are generally selected as the primary source of
nonverbal communication because facial expressions often are mirrors that reflect thoughts
and feelings. Ekman and Friesen have identified six basic emotions that facial expressions
reflect: fear, surprise, anger, happiness, disgust, and sadness.23 These expressions appear to
be recognizable in all cultures; people seeing photos of such expressions are quite accurate
in identifying the emotions behind them.

CHAPTER 5: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication162

Yet facial expressions are a complex source of information. They can change rapidly;
slow-motion films have found that a fleeting expression can come and go in a fifth of a sec-
ond. In addition, there are at least eight distinguishable positions of the eyes and lids, at least
8 positions for the eyebrows and forehead, and at least 10 for the lower face.24 Multiplying
these different combinations leads to several hundred possible combinations. Therefore, it
is almost impossible to compile a directory of facial expressions and their corresponding
emotions.

Because people are generally aware that their facial expressions reflect what they are
feeling and thinking, they may mask them. For example, a person who is angry and does
not want others to see the anger may hide this feeling by smiling. In using facial expressions
to interpret feelings, social workers must be aware that the sender may be concealing his or
her real thoughts and feelings.

Eye Contact When you want to end a conversation, or avoid a conversation, you look
away from the other person’s eyes. If you want to start a conversation, you often seek out the
receiver’s eyes. You may wait until the receiver looks at you: when he does, it is a signal that
he is ready to begin talking.

The eyes can also communicate dominance or submission. When a high-status person
and a low-status person are looking at each other, the low-status person tends to look away
first. Downcast eyes often signal submission or giving in. Of course, downcast eyes may also
signal sadness, boredom, fatigue, remorse, or disgust.

Good salespeople are aware that eye contact is a sign of involvement and often manage
to catch our eyes. Then they begin their pitch and maintain “courteous” eye contact. They
know social norms require a receiver to hear what a person has to say once the person is
allowed to begin speaking. These social norms trap us into listening to the sales pitch once
eye contact has been made. Salespeople in stores utilize eye contact in another way. They
determine which items a customer is looking at most and then emphasize these items in
their sales pitch.

The importance of eyes in communication is reflected in these common phrases:

“He could look right through you.”
“She has an icy stare.”
“He’s got shifty eyes.”
“Did you see the gleam in her eye?”

Eye expressions suggest a wide range of human feelings. Wide-open eyes imply wonder, ter-
ror, frankness, or naiveté. Lowered eyelids may mean displeasure. A constant stare connotes

Nonverbal Behavior Among Poker Players

Oswald Jacoby has noted that poker players use nonverbal
messages extensively and has divided poker players into three
classes: naive players, tricky players, and unreadable players.

Naive players are usually beginning players who possess
few skills. When they look worried, they probably are. When
they have a mediocre hand, they take a long time to bet. They
bet quickly on a good hand but frown and scowl and look
like bad luck has bitten them if they are dealt poor cards. A
bluff is accompanied by a guilty look; when they raise a bet,
everyone else folds. Naive players reveal their hands by body
language that is seldom apparent in veteran poker buffs. Play-
ers of this type usually quit poker at an early stage because of
their “bad luck.”

Most poker players are “tricky” players and act exactly
the opposite of the way they really feel. When they have a
poor hand, they exude confidence, and when they have a
good hand, they tremble a little and look nervous as they
bet. Sometimes they do a triple cross by acting the way they
really feel.

Unreadable players show no consistency in their behavior.
They will randomly exude confidence or look nervous, and
these nonverbal messages will give no clue as to the nature of
their hand. Unreadable players are the most successful.

SOURCE: Adapted from Jacoby, O. (1974). Oswald Jacoby on Poker.
New York: Doubleday.

163 Have an Increased Understanding of Nonverbal Communication

coldness; eyes rolled upward suggest the person believes another’s behavior is strange or
unusual.

When we become emotionally aroused or interested in something, the pupils of our
eyes dilate. Some counselors are sufficiently skilled in reading pupil dilation to tell when
they touch a sensitive area by watching a client’s eyes. Hess and Polt measured the amount
of pupil dilation while showing men and women various kinds of pictures.25 The greater the
subject’s interest in the pictures, the more the eyes dilated. Women’s eyes dilated an average
of 20% when looking at pictures of nude men. Men’s eyes dilated an average of 18% when
looking at pictures of nude women. Surprisingly, the greatest increase in pupil size occurred
when women looked at a picture of an infant and mother.

Gestures Most of us are aware that our facial expressions convey our feelings. When we
want to hide our true feelings, we concentrate on controlling our facial expressions. We are
less aware that our gestures also reveal our feelings, however, and as a result, gestures are
sometimes better indicators of feelings.

People who are nervous tend to fidget. They may bite their fingernails, tap their fingers,
rub their eyes or other parts of their body, bend paper clips, or tap a pencil. They may cross
and uncross their legs, rhythmically swing a crossed leg back and forth, or rhythmically
move a foot up and down.

Many other gestures provide clues to a person’s thoughts and feelings. Clenched fists,
whitened knuckles, and pointing fingers signal anger. When people want to express friend-
ship or attraction, they tend to move closer to each other. Hugs can represent a variety of
feelings: physical attraction, “good to see you,” “best wishes in the future,” and friendship.
Shaking hands is a signal of friendship and a way of saying hello or goodbye.

Scheflen notes that a person’s sexual feelings can be signaled through gestures. He
describes “preening behavior,” which sends a message that the sender is attracted to the
receiver. Preening includes rearranging one’s clothing, combing or stroking one’s hair, and
glancing in a minor. Scheflen cites a number of invitational preening gestures that he asserts
are specific to women: exposing a thigh, protruding a breast, placing a hand on a hip, exhib-
iting a wrist or palm, or stroking a thigh.26 Naturally, these gestures do not always suggest
sexual interest.

There are also invitational preening gestures for men. As a woman talks, a man may
gaze into her eyes intently. As conversation continues, he may lean in farther and farther
toward the woman until he starts to close the gap between them. A man may stand with his
pelvis thrust forward or sit or stand with legs wide apart. He may also stick his thumbs in
his belt loops, with his fingers aiming at his pelvic region, or thrust his hands in his pocket,
thumbs pointing toward his pelvis. Male preening behaviors may include straightening his
jacket or tie, rolling up sleeves or cuffs, or smoothing his hair. He also may tend to mimic
the woman’s gesture.27

Gestures are used in relation to verbal messages to repeat, substitute, accent, contra-
dict, and regulate. Some people literally speak with their hands, arms, and head move-
ments. Their gestures may be so automatic that they are surprised when they see themselves
on videotape and observe the number of gestures they use.

Psychologists Michael Kraus and Dacher Keltner found that people of higher socio-
economic status (SES) are ruder when conversing with others.28 Their study showed that
body language can signal a person’s SES. The researchers videotaped pairs of undergraduate
students who were strangers to one another during one-on-one interviews. The research-
ers then observed certain gestures that indicate level of interest in the other person during
one-minute slices of each conversation. They found that students whose parents were from
higher SES backgrounds engaged in more “impolite” gestures, such as doodling, groom-
ing, and fidgeting. Lower SES students engaged in more “I’m interested” gestures, such as
laughter and raising of the eyebrows. Like a peacock’s tail, the seemingly snooty gestures
of higher SES students indicate modern society’s version of “I don’t need you.” Lower SES
individuals cannot afford to brush off others. They have fewer resources and tend to be
more dependent on others.

CHAPTER 5: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication164

Touching Spitz has demonstrated that young children need direct physical contact,
such as being cuddled, held, and soothed. Without direct physical contact, the emotional,
social, intellectual, and physical development of children will be severely stunted.29 Spitz
observed that in the 19th century, high proportions of children died in orphanages and
other childcare institutions. The deaths were not found to be caused by poor nutrition or
inadequate medical care but by lack of physical contact with parents or nurses. From this
research came the practice of “nurturing” children in institutions—picking babies up, hold-
ing them close, playing with them, and carrying them around several times a day. With
this practice, the infant mortality rate in institutions dropped sharply. Montagu describes
research findings that suggest that eczema, allergies, and certain other medical problems
are in part caused by a person’s lack of physical contact with a parent during infancy.30

Adults also need physical contact. People need to know that they are loved, recognized,
and appreciated. Touching (through holding hands, hugging, pats on the back) is a way of
communicating warmth and caring. Unfortunately, most American men and some Ameri-
can women have been socialized to refrain from touching, except in sexual contexts. Sidney
Simon has noted:

In our now more than slightly cockeyed world, there seems to be little provision for some-
one to get touched without having to go to bed with whoever does the touching. And that’s
something to think about. We have mixed up simple, healing, warm touching with sexual
advances. So much so, that it often seems as if there is no middle way between “Don’t you
dare touch me!” and “Okay, you touched me, so now we should make love!”31

Our language is a mirror of our culture. Common phrases suggest that more impor-
tance is placed on the senses of sight and hearing than on touch:

“Seeing is believing.”
“It’s good to see you again.”
“It’s really good to hear from you.”
“I’ve got my eye on you.”

We have coined few phrases that include words for touch. For example, when leaving
someone we say, “See you again soon,” rather than “Touch you again soon.” If we should say
the latter, it would be apt to be interpreted as having sexual connotations.

But touching someone is in fact an excellent way of conveying a variety of messages,
depending on the context. A hug at a funeral will connote sympathy, whereas a hug when
meeting someone says, “It’s good to see you.” A hug between parent and child means, “I love
you,” whereas a hug on a date may have sexual meanings. Numerous therapists have noted
that communication and human relationships would be vastly improved if people reached out
and touched others more—with hugs, squeezes of the hand, kisses, and pats on the back. Touch
is crucial for the survival and development of children, and touch is just as crucial for adults
to assure them that they are worthwhile and loved.

There is a danger that a hug by someone who wants to send a message of nonsex-
ual love and support may be misinterpreted by the receiver as being an incident of sexual
harassment. One way of avoiding this predicament is for the person who wants to give a hug
to ask the receiver: “Would you like a hug?”

Clothing Clothes keep us warm, protect us from illness, and cover certain areas of
our body so we are not arrested for indecency. But clothes have many other functions.
Uniforms such as those worn by police officers or firefighters tell us what a person does
and what services he or she can render. People intentionally and unintentionally send
messages about themselves by what they wear. Clothes give messages about occupations,
personalities, interests, group norms, social philosophies, religious beliefs, status, values,
mood, age, nationality, and personal attitudes. There are numerous “wardrobe engineers”
(tailors, manufacturers, sellers of clothes) who assert that people can obtain what they
want by improving their wardrobes, and there is some truth to the phrase “clothes make
the person.”

165 Have an Increased Understanding of Nonverbal Communication

The importance of clothes in determining judgments that people make about strangers
was demonstrated in a study by Hoult. Hoult began by having 254 female students rate the
photos of male models on qualities such as “best looking,” “most likely to succeed,” “most
intelligent,” “most likely to date or double-date with,” and “best personality.” For these pho-
tos, Hoult obtained independent ratings of clothes and models’ heads. Hoult then placed
higher-ranked outfits on models with lower-ranked heads. Lower-ranked clothing was
placed on models with higher-ranked heads. He found that, regardless of how the mod-
el’s head was ranked, higher-ranked clothing was associated with an increase in rank and
lower-ranked clothing was associated with loss of rank.32

Adler and Towne have described an experiment in which a student spent a week hitch-
hiking back and forth from Los Angeles to Santa Barbara, a distance of 100 miles. On
Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday, the student wore stay-pressed slacks, well-shined leather
shoes, and an ironed shirt; on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, he wore old blue jeans,
sandals, and a tie-dyed sweatshirt. Other than the clothes, the student kept other factors
constant, such as where he stood and at what time of day. The student described the results:

It was incredible! On my three grubby days I got rides from people who looked just like I
did. Two of them drove old VW buses, and the third had a ’55 Ford pickup truck. They all
wore Levis, boots, et cetera, and all had pretty much the same life style. On the days when
I dressed up, I got rides in shiny new Oldsmobiles and Cadillacs from people who were
completely opposite from the ones I’d driven with the day before.33

Any given item of clothing can convey several different meanings. For example, the
tie a person selects to wear may reflect “sophistication” or “nonconformity.” In addition,
the way the tie is worn (loosened, tightly knotted, thrown over one’s shoulder, soiled and
wrinkled) may provide additional information.

Clothes also affect our self-image. If a person feels appropriately dressed, he or she
is usually more self-confident, assertive, and outgoing. If not, he or she becomes more
reserved, less confident, and less assertive.

With clothes (as with other forms of nonverbal communication), there is a real danger
of misreading nonverbal messages. We often judge others on the basis of skimpy infor-
mation, and frequently these interpretations are in error. Sometimes we get “burned” by
our misinterpretations. Several years ago I had a client who for the previous 10 years had
lived elegantly, traveling all over Europe and North America, staying in the finest hotels.
He financed his lifestyle by writing bad checks. When he needed money he would dress in
an expensive suit because, he explained, people took his check much more readily when he
was well dressed.

Personal Boundaries
Each of us wears a kind of invisible “bubble” of personal space wherever we go. The area
inside this bubble is strictly private; only people who are emotionally close to us are allowed
inside. You can sometimes tell how people are feeling toward each other by noting the
physical distance between them. In fact, Hall has identified four distinct distances, or zones,
in people’s daily interactions that guide their relations with others. These zones are intimate,
personal, social, and public.34 The particular zone chosen depends upon the context of the
interaction, feelings toward the person, and interpersonal goals. Boundary behavior, like
other nonverbal signals, provides group leaders with important information. For example,
the distance maintained by group members should indicate to the group leader the mem-
bers’ personal preferences in individual interactions. These preferences, which may change
considerably as the group progresses toward its goals, should be respected; otherwise, lead-
ers are likely to encounter problems, such as resistance or distrust.

Intimate Zone This zone begins with skin contact and extends out about 18 inches. Only
people who are very close emotionally enter this zone, primarily in private situations—
comforting, conveying caring, making love, and showing love and affection. When a person
voluntarily allows someone to enter this distance, it is a sign of trust because defenses are

CHAPTER 5: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication166

lowered. On the other hand, if a person maintains a “safe” distance of 2 or more feet, it prob-
ably means that the person is still sorting out the relationship.

When an uninvited intruder moves into this intimate zone, people usually feel invaded
and threatened. Their posture becomes more upright, their muscles tense, and they may
move back and avoid eye contact as a way of signaling they want a less intimate relationship.
When people are forced to stand close to strangers on crowded buses and elevators, they
generally avoid eye contact and try not to rub against others, probably to say, “I’m sorry I’m
forced to invade your territory—I’ll try not to bother you.”

Personal Zone This zone, which ranges from approximately 18 inches to 4 feet, is the
distance at which a couple stands apart from each other in public. Interestingly, if someone
of the opposite sex stands close to someone we are dating or married to, we tend to wonder
whether this person is trying to “move in” on us. If we see our spouse or date move close to
someone of the opposite sex, we may become suspicious and jealous.

The far range of the personal zone (from about 2½ to 4 feet) is a distance at “arm’s
length,” just beyond the other person’s reach. Interactions occurring at this distance may
still be reasonably close, but they are much less personal than those at the near range of the
personal zone. Sometimes, communication at “arm’s length” represents a test by people to
determine whether they want the relationship to become emotionally closer.

Social Zone This zone, which ranges from about 4 to 12 feet, usually encompasses busi-
ness communications. The nearer part of this zone (from about 4 to 7 feet) is the distance at
which coworkers usually converse and at which salespeople and customers usually interact.
Hall indicates that the 7- to 12-foot range is used for more impersonal and formal situa-
tions. For example, this is the distance at which your boss talks to you when seated behind a
desk. If you were to pull your chair around to the side of the boss’s desk, a different kind of
relationship would be signaled. The way furniture is arranged and the plants and wall hang-
ings that people have in an office also convey signals about their values and interests and
the type of relationship they want to establish. If the desk is placed between the office owner
and the customer, client, or student, the desk acts as a barrier and suggests that the office
owner wants formal and impersonal interaction. An office in which a desk is not used as a
barrier and that has plants suggests the office owner wants warmer, less formal interactions.

Public Zone This zone extends outward from 12 feet. Teachers and public speakers gen-
erally use the nearer range of public distance. In the farther range (beyond 25 feet), two-way
communication is very difficult. Any speaker who voluntarily places considerable distance
between himself or herself and the audience is not interested in having a dialogue.

Territoriality
Territoriality is behavior characterized by identification with an area in a way that indicates
ownership and a willingness to defend it against those who may invade it.35 Many birds and
small animals (including dogs, geese, snakes, and skunks) will strike out at much larger
animals if they feel their territory is being invaded.

Territoriality also exists in human interactions. Traditionally, Dad and Mom have their
chairs, and each child has a separate bedroom. The feeling of territorial ownership is some-
times extended to objects that are not really owned. Students in a class tend to select a
certain seat to sit in. If someone else should happen to sit in that seat, the first student may
feel that ownership rights are being violated, even though clearly the school campus owns
the chairs.

Acquired properties—cars, homes, leisure-time equipment, plants, and clothes—are
strong indicators of interests and values and often become topics of conversation. Material
objects also communicate status messages, as wealthy people own more property than the
poor. Generally, more personal space and greater privacy are granted to people of higher
status. Before entering your boss’s office, for example, you knock and then wait for an invi-
tation. With people of an equal or lower status, you frequently walk right in.

167 Have an Increased Understanding of Nonverbal Communication

Voice
Depending on emphasis, a word or phrase may carry many meanings. For example, look
at how the meanings of the following sentences are changed by changing the word that is
emphasized:

He’s giving this money to Herbie.
(HE is the one giving the money; no one else.)
He’s giving this money to Herbie.
(He is GIVING, not lending, the money.)
He’s giving this money to Herbie.
(The money being exchanged is not from any other source; it is THIS money.)
He’s giving this money to Herbie.
(MONEY is the unit of exchange, not a check.)
He’s giving this money to Herbie.
(The recipient is HERBIE, not Eric or Bill or Rod.)36

Usually people raise their voice at the end of a question and lower it at the end of a
declarative statement. Sometimes people intentionally manipulate their voice to contradict
the verbal message.

In addition to emphasizing particular words, our voices communicate in other
ways. These include length of pauses, tone, pitch, speed, volume, and disfluencies
(such as stammering or saying “uh,” “um,” and “er”). Taken together, these factors have
been called paralanguage, which deals with how something is said and not with what
is said.37

By using paralanguage, group members can contradict their verbal messages. For
example, by simply changing the tone or inflection in his or her voice, a person can convey
the following messages literally or sarcastically:

“I really like you.”
“I’m having a perfectly wonderful time.”
“You’re really terrific.”
“There’s nothing that I like better than liver sausage.”

Mehrabian has found that when the paralanguage and the verbal message are contra-
dictory, the paralanguage carries more meaning.38 When there is a contradiction between
words and the way something is said, receivers usually interpret the message by the way it
was said.

An excellent way to learn more about how a group uses paralanguage is to videotape
a meeting and then watch the replay. This process also provides valuable feedback about
group members’ use of other forms of nonverbal communication.

Physical Appearance
Although it is common to hear people say that it is only inner beauty that really counts,
research shows that outer beauty (physical attractiveness) influences responses for
a broad range of interpersonal interactions. Singer found that male college profes-
sors tended to give higher grades to female students who were physically attractive
than to those who were less attractive.39 According to Mills and Aronson, attractive
females could modify attitudes of male students more than less attractive females
could.40 Widgery and Webster have determined that attractive people, regardless of
sex, will be rated high on credibility, which greatly increases their ultimate persua-
siveness in a variety of areas—sales, public speaking, changing attitudes, being rec-
ognized as a credible counselor, and so on.41 An attractive applicant for a position is
much more apt to receive an employment offer than an unattractive applicant.

Unattractive defendants are more likely to be judged guilty in courtrooms and to
receive longer sentences.42 The evidence is clear that initially we respond much more favor-
ably to physically attractive people. Attractiveness serves to open doors and create greater
opportunities.

CHAPTER 5: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication168

Physically attractive people outstrip less attractive people on a wide range of socially
desirable evaluations, including personality, popularity, success, sociability, persuasive-
ness, sexuality, and often happiness.43 Attractive women, for example, are more apt to be
helped and less likely to be the objects of aggressive acts.44 Less attractive people are at a
disadvantage from early childhood. Teachers, for example, interact less (and less positively)
with unattractive children.45 Physical attractiveness is also a crucial factor in determining
the number of personal interactions. Practically everyone prefers the most attractive date,
regardless of his or her own attractiveness and regardless of rejection by the most attractive
date.46

Interestingly, unattractive men seen with attractive women are judged higher in a num-
ber of areas than attractive men seen with attractive women.47 They are considered to make
more money, be more successful, and have more intelligence. Apparently, the evaluators
reasoned that unattractive males must compensate for their appearance in other areas to
obtain dates with attractive women.

EXERCISE 5.9 Reading Nonverbal Cues

GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you apply the material in this chapter on nonverbal cues to a real-life situation.

1. Go to a restaurant (a dining hall on campus is fine) and observe two strangers who are dining. For about 10 to
15 minutes record information about the nonverbal communication cues of both individuals.

2. Review the material you wrote down. Speculate about the following for each of these people: What is the socioeconomic
status of each? Is either one stressed, happy, upset, and so on? What appears to be the nature of the relationship between
these two individuals?

Person A Person B

Posture

Body Orientation

Facial Expressions

Eye Contact

Gestures

Touching

Clothing

Personal Boundaries

Physical Appearance

169 Have an Increased Understanding of Nonverbal Communication

Our weight suggests certain stereotypes, which may or may not be accurate. People
who are overweight are judged to be older, more old-fashioned, less strong physically, more
talkative, less good-looking, more agreeable and good-natured, more sympathetic, more
trusting, more dependent, and more warmhearted. Muscular individuals are rated as being
stronger, better looking, younger, more adventurous, more self-reliant, more mature in
behavior, and more masculine. A person with a thin physique is rated as younger, more
suspicious of others, more tense and nervous, less masculine, more pessimistic, quieter,
more stubborn, and more inclined to be difficult.48 Overweight and very thin people have
been discriminated against when attempting to obtain jobs, purchase life insurance, adopt
children, or enter college.49 There are stereotypes (which may be erroneous) people who are
severely overweight or underweight have a low self-image. The important point here is that
even our body weight communicates messages.

Being physically attractive does not mean that a person will be more intelligent, more
successful, better adjusted, and happier than less attractive people. Attractiveness initially
opens more doors to success, but after a door is opened, it is performance that determines
outcome. It should also be noted that everyone has the ability to improve his or her physical
appearance. Dieting, exercising, managing stress, learning to be assertive, adequate sleep,
and good grooming habits will substantially improve a person’s physical appearance.

Environment
Perhaps all of us have been in immaculate homes that have “unliving rooms” with furniture
coverings, plastic lamp coverings, and spotless ashtrays that send nonverbal messages of
“Do not get me dirty,” “Do not touch,” “Do not put your feet up,” and “Stay alert to avoid a
mistake.” Owners of these homes wonder why guests cannot relax and have a good time.
They are unaware that the environment is communicating messages that lead guests to feel
uncomfortable.

A study by Maslow and Mintz found that the attractiveness of a room shapes the kind
of communication that takes place and influences the happiness and energy of people
working in it.50 The researchers used an “ugly” room, which looked like a janitor’s closet,
and a “beautiful” room, which was furnished with drapes, carpeting, and comfortable
furniture. To gauge the subjects’ energy levels and feelings of well-being, researchers asked
them to rate a series of pictures of models’ faces. When subjects were in the ugly room,
they became tired and bored sooner, taking longer to complete their task. They described
the room as producing fatigue, headaches, monotony, and irritability. When the subjects
moved to the beautiful room, they displayed a greater desire to work. They also rated the
faces they were judging higher and communicated many more feelings of comfort, impor-
tance, and enjoyment. This experiment provides evidence supporting the commonsense
notion that workers do a better job and generally feel better when they are in an attractive
environment.

Wall decorations, types of furniture, and placement of furniture in a meeting area
convey messages as to whether the group leader wants informal, relaxed communications
or formal, to-the-point communications. A round table, for example, suggests egalitarian
communication, whereas a rectangular table suggests status and power differences. At a
rectangular table, high-status people generally sit at one end of the table and low-status
individuals sit at the other. If sides of equal strength hold a meeting around a rectangular
table, each side sits at opposite ends, rather than intermingling. A classroom in which
the chairs are in a circle suggests the instructor wants to create an informal atmosphere.
A classroom with the chairs in rows suggests the instructor wants to create a formal
atmosphere.

When clients come into the offices of helping professionals, the offices commu-
nicate messages. A clean, neat waiting room with comfortable chairs, plants, and soft
background music communicates warmth, caring, and a professional approach. Nega-
tive messages are sent by an unclean room, hard chairs, few wall decorations, and loose
paint on walls. A messy office may suggest to a client that the worker is overwhelmed,
perhaps burning out, and therefore is unlikely to be of much help. Workers can tell their

170 CHAPTER 5: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication170

clients that they want them to feel comfortable by providing comfortable padded chairs
instead of hard wooden ones, by providing tissues, by having plants and wall decorations
that suggest the workers really like their jobs, and by arranging the furniture to facilitate
communication.

Other Nonverbal Cues
Social workers need to be aware of other nonverbal cues. When people become anxious,
angry, embarrassed, or otherwise emotionally excited, they have a pronounced facial blush
or extensive reddening of the chest and neck. In therapy, such a cue may signal that the
client is focusing on emotionally charged material, which often needs to be explored.

The breathing pattern of a group member is another cue. When a member is anxious
or emotionally excited, breathing rate increases, which can be observed by watching the
person’s chest.

Another nonverbal cue commonly observed by psychotherapists, educators, and oth-
ers is a change in muscle tension. When you become acquainted with someone, a com-
mon cue that you often use (and frequently are not aware of ) to tell whether that person
is relaxed or tense (or emotionally excited) is the degree of tenseness of muscles in that
person’s face, neck, and arms.

When a person is relaxed, the temperature on the surface of his or her hands is nor-
mally 10 to 15 degrees warmer than when the person is tense. As part of the reaction to
stress, blood flows inward. When a person is relaxed, blood flows outward and warms the
hands and skin. When you shake hands with someone, you are apt to receive information
about whether that person is relaxed or under stress. (It should be noted that variables other
than stress may cause a person’s hand to feel colder. For example, the person may have been
outside in cold weather or recently held a cold drink.)

Summary

The following summarizes the chapter’s content in terms of the learning objectives presented at the beginning of the chapter.

1. Understand a mode of communication.
A model of communication is presented. One-way communication is compared and
contrasted with two-way communication. Some serious drawbacks exist with one-
way communication.

2. Identify factors that interfere with the communication process.
What a receiver of a message perceives the message to be becomes the message.
The perception may be fully accurate, partially accurate, or completely inaccurate.
A number of variables can affect the accuracy of the perception, including defense
mechanisms.

3. Communicate more effectively.
Guidelines are presented for both senders and receivers for improving communica-
tion. Guidelines for when, where, and what members should self-disclose in groups
are discussed. Members should self-disclose when the potential benefits outweigh the
potential risks. The Johari Window (a graphic model of self-disclosure) is presented.

4. Have an increased understanding of nonverbal communication.
The following forms of nonverbal communication are described: posture, body
orientation, facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, touching, clothing, personal
boundaries, territoriality, voice, physical appearance, environment, breathing
patterns, change in muscle tension, and hand temperature. The more competence
that group leaders and group members develop in perceiving nonverbal and verbal
communications accurately, the more effectively they are apt to function in a group.

171 Group Exercises

Group Exercises

EXERCISE A: The Johari Window
GOAL: To introduce the Johari Window and demonstrate how it can be used to further self-
awareness.

Note: The instructor should lead this exercise, and students should be told not to disclose per-
sonal information.

Step 1. The group leader describes what the Johari Window is and how increased self-disclosure
generally leads to greater self-awareness and more meaningful relationships. The group leader
may also describe why group members are initially reluctant to self-disclose but gradually be-
gin to do so. With appropriate self-disclosure in groups, cohesion and group morale generally
increase. The group leader should note that personal information should not be disclosed during
this exercise.

Step 2. The members pair up into subgroups. Each member draws a Johari Window representing
himself or herself and then his or her partner. These drawings should be made privately.

Step 3. The partners share their drawings with each other. Each describes the reasons for drawing
the window in the form that is displayed. The two partners discuss the similarities and differences
in their drawings; for example, why did A draw himself or herself as not being very open, whereas
B drew A as being a very open person?

Step 4. The class discusses thoughts about the merits and shortcomings of the Johari Window
and what they learned from the exercise.

EXERCISE B: Defense Mechanisms
GOAL: To become more aware of the use of defense mechanisms.

Step 1. The group leader begins by stating the purpose of the exercise and giving brief descrip-
tions of common defense mechanisms (see the relevant section in this chapter).

Step 2. Each member lists on a sheet of paper the three defense mechanisms a friend uses most
often and then describes one or two examples of each. The leader explains that students will be
asked to share what they write with two other students.

Step 3. After Step 2 is completed, the class forms subgroups of three students, and each member
is asked to share what he or she wrote. The two listeners should provide feedback on whether
the defense mechanisms have desirable or undesirable consequences. For the undesirable, the
members discuss more effective approaches.

Step 4. The class discusses what they learned from the exercise and how they feel about it.

EXERCISE C: Distortions in Transmitting Information
GOAL: To demonstrate the effects of transmitting information through a series of one-way and
two-way communications among group members.

Step 1. The leader explains the purpose of the exercise, asks 10 students to step outside, and
informs them that their task will be to repeat to someone else what they hear. The remaining
students are observers. The first five students will use one-way communication, and the second
five will use two-way communication. A copy of the following story is distributed to the observ-
ers, who are asked to record what each participant adds to the communication and what each
participant leaves out of the communication.

CHAPTER 5: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication172

Step 2. The first participant returns, and the leader slowly reads the following story to him.

A farmer in western Kansas put a tin roof on his bam. Then a small tornado blew the
roof off, and when the farmer found it two counties away, it was twisted and mangled
beyond repair.

A friend and lawyer advised him that the Ford Motor Company would pay him a
good price for the scrap tin, and the farmer decided he would ship the roof up to the
company to see how much he could get for it. He crated it up in a very big wooden
box and sent it off to Dearborn, Michigan, marking it plainly with his return address
so that the Ford Company would know where to send the check.

Twelve weeks passed, and the farmer didn’t hear from the Ford Company. Finally,
he was just on the verge of writing to find out what was the matter, when he received
an envelope from Ford. It said, “We don’t know what hit your car, mister, but we’ll
have it fixed for you by the 15th of next month.”51

The story is read once, and no questions are allowed. The second participant enters, the first
repeats the story to the second, and so on. The fifth participant should repeat the story to the
observers, and this fifth repetition should be tape-recorded to play back later.

Step 3. The sixth participant enters and is told that he or she may ask questions about the story he
or she is about to hear. The story is read and questions answered. The process is repeated until the
10th participant repeats the story to the observers. The 10th repetition should be tape-recorded
to play back later.

Step 4. The group leader explains the effects of leveling, sharpening, and assimilation on the
transmission of information. Some observers summarize verbally what each participant added to
and left out of the story.

Step 5. The group leader describes why two-way communication is generally superior to one-way
communication. The group leader should then play back the 5th and 10th participants’ descriptions
of the story. A discussion should then follow as to which version was closer to the original story.

EXERCISE D: The Intruder
GOAL: To present a model for communication and to demonstrate that there are fairly wide vari-
ations in what students perceive.

Step 1. Prior to the meeting, the group leader arranges for a friend or acquaintance to barge into
the class and create a scene. This accomplice should not be known to anyone in class.

Step 2. The group is informed that the purpose of this exercise is to become aware of factors that
reduce or prevent effective communication. The group leader describes the communication model
presented at the beginning of this chapter. When the group leader is nearly finished, the leader should
unobtrusively signal the accomplice to enter. The accomplice should barge in, create a ruckus, say
some disparaging things about the group leader, threaten the group leader, and then leave angrily.

Step 3. The leader explains that the purpose of this exercise is to see how closely the stu-
dents’ perceptions match. Ask each student to write down on a sheet of paper the following
information:

1. The intruder’s height and weight
2. What the intruder was wearing
3. What the intruder looked like
4. What the intruder said and did

Step 4. Several descriptions are read aloud and differences discussed. If there are sharp differ-
ences, why did they occur? The leader explains that perceptual differences between people are a
major barrier to effective communication.

173 Group Exercises

EXERCISE E: Active Listening
GOAL: To develop active-listening skills.

Step 1. The leader explains the purpose of the exercise and describes what active listening is and
what it is designed to accomplish. The leader indicates that active listening involves using two
types of statements: reflecting feelings and restating content.

Step 2. Students pair off. (If there is someone without a partner, the leader should participate.)
One member of each pair selects a topic to discuss for about 10 minutes. The topic may involve
(1) a philosophical or moral issue such as abortion, (2) a problem with a friend or a relative, or
(3) a problem at school.

Step 3. The member who selects a topic discusses the issue for about 10 minutes. The listener
should try to respond solely with active-listening statements.

Step 4. After the discussion, the presenter should discuss with the listener the quality of the
active-listening statements. Did the listener make the mistake of making suggestions, asking
questions, or beginning to talk about personal experiences? Did active listening motivate the
presenter to continue talking? Did the presenter perceive the active-listening statements to be
primarily “natural” or “artificial”?

The listener should then discuss with the presenter his or her thoughts and feelings about using
active-listening statements. Did the listener want to make other types of statements? If so, what?

Step 5. The roles should then be reversed and the process repeated.

Step 6. Students form a circle and discuss the merits and shortcomings of active listening. Did any
unique or unusual events occur?

EXERCISE F: My Nonverbal Communication
GOAL: To identify and observe nonverbal messages that people respond to and to give feedback
on the ways in which nonverbal messages are used constructively.

Step 1. The leader describes the purpose of the exercise. She asks the class to identify various
types of nonverbal behaviors on the blackboard. A partial list would include:

Muscle tension Breathing patterns
Eye contact Clothes
Smiles Distance between people
Eyebrow movements communicating
Gestures Touch
Voice tone Silence and pauses
Facial color Facial expressions

Step 2. The class forms groups of three students each. Each subgroup member is asked to select
his or her all-time favorite movie.

Step 3. Each group member talks for a minute and a half to his or her small group on the
selected topic. The two who are observing in each group should note the speaker’s nonverbal
signals. The leader should inform the subgroups when it is time for each member to start and
to stop talking.

Step 4. After all three group members have spoken, group members share what they liked about
the way each communicated nonverbally.

Step 5. Group members are then asked to think about their nonverbal communication privately
and about what they could change to communicate more effectively nonverbally.

CHAPTER 5: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication174

EXERCISE G: Nonverbal Cues
GOAL: To learn the kinds of nonverbal cues that should be used to obtain social work employ-
ment and establish a relaxed, nonthreatening atmosphere for clients.

Step 1. The group leader states the goals of the exercise. The first task for each member of the
class is to assume that he or she is a director of a social service agency interviewing applicants for
a social work position. As director, which nonverbal cues might enter into the decision as to which
applicant to hire? (Responses should be listed on the blackboard.)

Step 2. The second task for each student is to assume the role of a client who is emotionally upset
and has painful decisions to make, such as whether to get a divorce. As a client, which nonverbal
cues by a counselor would establish a relaxed, nonthreatening atmosphere that would increase
the chances of the client fully sharing concerns? As responses are given, they are also listed on
the blackboard.

Step 3. The similarities and differences between the two lists are discussed. For the differences,
the possible reasons for these discrepancies are also discussed.

EXERCISE H: A Popular Faculty Member
GOAL: To become more aware of using nonverbal communication in assessing human behavior.

Step 1. The group leader selects a popular faculty member with whom the students are famil-
iar. The class indicates the specific nonverbal cues used by this instructor to increase his or her
effectiveness. The following clues should be considered: clothing, eyes, facial expressions, pos-
ture, physical appearance, gestures and other body movements, and paralanguage.

Step 2. With this same instructor in mind, the class focuses on the appearance of this faculty mem-
ber’s office and imagines that this is the only information they have about the instructor. The class
then discusses the nonverbal messages sent by the types of objects, arrangement of objects, and
general conditions of the office. Next, the class discusses which of these nonverbal messages give
an impression different from what the instructor is like. Which are consistent? Finally, the class
discusses the types of interaction the office atmosphere suggests should take place—for example,
whether the communication is expected to be formal and businesslike or relaxed and informal.

EXERCISE I: Double Messages
GOAL: To understand how verbal messages can contradict nonverbal messages.

Step 1. The class divides into two groups of equal size and is informed that this is an exercise in
keeping conversations going. One group leaves for a separate room or the hallway.

Step 2. The remaining, or first, group is told that this is really an exercise in learning more about
how people react when someone seems to be saying one thing verbally and another nonver-
bally. Each member’s task is to pick a topic to discuss with another person in the other group for
10 minutes. The topic maybe anything, such as politics, movies, or sports. While discussing the
topic, each person should periodically nonverbally contradict his or her verbal message by using
facial expressions, gestures, laughter, and voice fluctuations. Furthermore, each person should
note and observe the partner’s nonverbal reactions to these double messages.

Step 3. The second group is told that each person will be paired with someone in the first group.
The partner in the first group will start a conversation on a topic. The task of each person in this sec-
ond group is to keep the discussion going and to inject controversial topics into the conversation.

Step 4. The room should be large enough to allow individuals to spread out and carry on con-
versations. Perhaps two rooms can be used. Individuals from both groups pair off and discuss the
topic for approximately 10 minutes.

175 Group Exercises

Step 5. The real purpose of the exercise is now explained to the second group. The first group
discusses the following questions with the second group listening. What nonverbal cues did they
use to contradict their verbal messages? Was sending a double message hard to do? What were
the reactions to these double messages?

Then the second group discusses the following: How did they feel about their partners
during this exercise? Did they believe what their partners were saying verbally? How did they
cope with the double messages they were receiving? When nonverbal messages conflicted with
verbal messages, which were they more likely to believe?

EXERCISE J: The Flat Tire
GOAL: To become more aware of individual differences and skills in using nonverbal cues to relay
messages.

Step 1. The leader explains that the exercise involves students relaying messages nonverbally.
Four students volunteer to leave the room. Then the following is read to a fifth volunteer who
must try to remember and communicate it nonverbally to the first student who returns. That
student will then nonverbally communicate it to the second student, and so on.

You are driving a car and your right front tire goes flat. You get out and kick the tire.
You go to the trunk, open it, and there’s no spare. You angrily slam the trunk shut. You
then attempt to hitchhike to a gas station you recently passed. A motorcyclist stops to
give you a ride to the gas station.

The volunteers receiving the message may ask questions, but the senders must communi-
cate their answers nonverbally.

While these five volunteers are acting out this exercise, the remainder of the class responds
to the following questions on paper each time the message is relayed: What did the relayer add to
or delete from the message? If there was a communication breakdown as a result of a weakness
in a nonverbal cue, how could this have been avoided by using a better one?

Step 2. The person who receives the final message states it verbally. This message is compared to
the original, and the whole class discusses the two questions in Step 1.

EXERCISE K: Communicating While Blindfolded
GOAL: To better understand, how communication is affected when the sense of sight is
not used.

Step 1. The leader explains that nonverbal communication is heavily dependent on the sense
of sight. We watch other people’s facial expressions, eyes, posture, hand gestures, and body
movements. The leader describes the goal of the exercise and asks for five or six volunteers.
These volunteers sit in a circle in the middle of the class. The volunteers are given a contro-
versial topic to discuss (for example, whether the elderly who have a terminal illness and are
in severe pain have a right to take their own lives). All volunteers are either blindfolded or
asked to keep their eyes tightly shut while discussing the topic. The topic is discussed for 10 to
15 minutes.

Step 2. At the end of 10 or 15 minutes, the discussion ends. The volunteers remove their blind-
folds or open their eyes, and discuss the following questions:

1. How did it feel to be blindfolded?
2. How did not being able to see affect the communications?
3. Did having a blindfold on interfere with being able to concentrate on what was said?
4. Was it difficult to hear?
5. Do they think they gestured more or less than they usually do?

CHAPTER 5: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication176

6. During this exercise, did they become aware of anything they had not noticed before?
7. Does not being able to see the people you are talking to substantially hamper communication?

If yes, in what ways?

Step 3. As an additional optional step, this exercise may be repeated with a new group of
volunteers.

EXERCISE L: Giving and Receiving Feedback About
Nonverbal Communication
GOAL: To observe nonverbal communication in others and receive feedback about nonverbal
communication.

Step 1. The group leader states the purpose of the exercise and divides the class into two groups
of equal size; if there is an uneven number, the group leader can participate. Each member in one
group should pair up with someone in the other group.

Step 2. One group sits in an inner circle, and the other group members sit in an outer circle to
observe the nonverbal communication of their partners. The inner circle discusses a controversial
topic that will arouse strong emotions. The topic can be abortion or whether a male and female
who both have a severe intellectual disability should legally be permitted to marry and have chil-
dren. The discussion should continue for 10 to 20 minutes. People in the outer circle observe the
nonverbal communication of their partners—gestures, body movements, eye behavior, paralan-
guage, facial expressions, and so on.

Step 3. After the discussion, the observing partner informs his or her partner as to what non-
verbal cues were used and what messages were communicated. After the observing partner is
finished, the partner who was observed should have an opportunity to discuss his or her degree
of agreement with the observer’s interpretations.

Step 4. The roles of the partners are reversed and Steps 2 and 3 repeated.

Step 5. The class discusses what they learned from this exercise.

EXERCISE M: Zones of Personal Space
GOAL: To observe how the distance between communicators affects what people are thinking
and feeling.

Step 1. The leader explains the purpose of the exercise. Two people volunteer for an exercise to
illustrate these effects.

Step 2. The volunteers stand at the farthest corners of the room, away from each other. Their task
is to slowly, very slowly, move toward each other. As they are slowly moving toward each other,
they engage in small talk about topics of their choosing. They should continue slowly walking and
conversing until they touch. When they touch they should slowly start moving away from each
other but continue to converse. At the point when they are most comfortable in conversing, they
should stop.

Step 3: Other volunteers may be selected to repeat the exercise until interest wanes.

Step 4. The volunteers involved in this exercise should then determine the distances between
partners that were most comfortable and least comfortable for conversing. The leader of the ex-
ercise should note the points at which the various pairs were most comfortable in conversing and
then make some statements about the extent of the congruence between these “most comfort-
able points” and the theoretical material in the chapter as to the “most comfortable point” for
conversing in this type of situation.

Key Terms and Concepts 177

Competency Notes

EP 1b Use reflection and self-regulation to manage personal values and maintain professionalism in
practice situations.

EP 1c Demonstrate professional demeanor in behavior; appearance; and oral, written, and electronic
communication.

EP 6a Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and
other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and constituencies.

EP 6b Use empathy, reflection, and interpersonal skills to effectively engage diverse clients and con-
stituencies.

The content of the chapter and the exercises within the chapter are focused on students better
understanding verbal communication and nonverbal communication. The content and the exer-
cises are also designed to help students learn to communicate more effectively.

EP 1d Use technology ethically and appropriately to facilitate practice outcomes.

This section summarizes aspects of technology in social work with groups (p. 157).

Key Terms and Concepts

Accent
Assimilate
Certainty
Contradict
Decodes

Directive or Coercive
Encoding
Equal Basis
Evaluative
Indifference

Johari Window
Level
Manipulate
Motives
Organize

Reciprocal
Regulate
Repeat
Substitute
Superior

178

6
Task Groups*

LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
Social workers and other
helping professionals are
often called upon to chair
committees, focus groups,
teams, and other task groups.
This chapter will help prepare
students to:

LO 1
Identify a variety of task
groups.

LO 2
Comprehend how to lead
task groups.

LO 3
Understand that one of
the major functions of task
groups is problem solving.

LO 4
Utilize the brainstorming
technique.

LO 5
More effectively resolve
interpersonal conflicts.

LO 6
Understand that a second
major function of task
groups is decision making.

LO 7
More effectively handle
groupthink.

LO 1 Identify a Variety of Task Groups

A VARIETY OF TASK GROUPS
Task groups are used to generate new ideas, to make decisions, and to
find solutions to organizational problems. Task groups have three primary
purposes: (1) meeting client needs, (2) meeting organizational needs, and
(3) meeting community needs.

Task groups to meet client needs include treatment teams. A few examples
will illustrate treatment teams. A group of professionals who deliver home-
based hospice care may meet weekly to review the services being provided to
patients. Professionals at a county mental health center may meet weekly to
review the services being provided to clients who are living in the community.
Professionals at a rehabilitation center may meet weekly to review services
to clients at that facility. Often, at such meetings a second focus is on team
building; time is devoted to improving how members function as a group.
At times, treatment teams meet for the purpose of developing, monitoring,
and coordinating treatment plans for a particular client—for example, profes-
sionals at a mental health center may meet to develop a treatment plan for a
depressed elderly man whose wife has recently died.

Task groups to meet organizational needs include committees and boards
of directors. The most common type of task group is the committee. Members
of a committee may be appointed or elected. A committee is “charged” with
completing one or more tasks. Committees may be temporary creations (ad
hoc committees) or be more permanent parts of the structure of an organiza-
tion (standing committees). A board of directors is a governing board charged
with responsibility for setting the policies governing the agency. Members of
the board provide guidance to the management of an organization.

There are a variety of task groups to meet community needs. Social action
groups empower members to engage in collective, planned change efforts to
improve some aspect of the community’s social or physical environment. For
example, nontraditional students at a campus may organize and advocate for
a childcare center being established at the campus. Coalitions (sometimes
called alliances) are groups of organizations or social-action groups that come
together to exert influence by sharing expertise and resources. Coalition mem-
bers believe their common goals have a greater chance of being achieved by
united action than by members acting alone. For example, several organi-
zations, local government leaders, and civil leaders may form a coalition to

EP 1c
EP 6a

* Sarah Hessenauer, MSW, PhD (chair of the Social Works Department, University of Wisconsin–Whitewater;
Associate Professor) assisted in revising this chapter.

179 Comprehend How to Lead Task Groups

explore ways to reduce racial tensions in a community. Delegate councils are formed for the
purpose of facilitating interagency cooperation and communication and studying commu-
nity-wide social issues. Members of delegate councils are elected or appointed by a variety of
sponsoring units. For example, representatives from each of the human service agencies in a
community may have monthly meetings to share information, discuss ways to improve inter-
agency communication, and study emerging issues (such as increases in family violence).

LO 2 Comprehend How to Lead Task Groups

GUIDELINES FOR LEADING TASK GROUPS
A number of guidelines will be given. These guidelines are not mandates, as some circum-
stances will result in the desirability of deviating from these guidelines.

Establishing the Group’s Purpose
The first and critically important question is “What is the group’s purpose?” Toseland and
Rivas state: “A statement of purpose should be broad enough to encompass different goals,
yet specific enough to define the common nature of the group’s purpose. A clear statement
of purpose helps members answer the question ‘What are we doing together?’”1

A variety of sources may generate the group’s purpose. A social worker may seek to
form a task group to study an emerging social issue. An agency director, or agency staff,
may identify the need for the establishment of an ad hoc committee. Recipients of services
may request that a task force be established to advocate against government-proposed cuts
in services. A group of ministers may advocate for the establishment of a delegate council
of community agencies and civic leaders to study the need for an expansion of church-
affiliated childcare centers.

Potential Sponsorship of the Task Group
In assessing an organization as sponsor for the proposed group, the organizer(s) of the group
should pay careful attention to the purpose of the group and the organization’s policies and
goals. A delegate council of ministers, rabbis, and priests may be a good fit for sponsoring
a task force to study the need for an expansion of church-affiliated childcare centers in a
community. On the other hand, the local Hooters restaurant may not be a good fit for spon-
soring a task force to study the sociopolitical environment for women in the community.

Selecting Potential Members
Potential members should be selected for their expertise, their interest in the task, and their
position and power (including their political influence) to help the group accomplish its
purpose. It is also important to seek diversity in membership (including ethnicity, gender,
age, and sociocultural factors). Representation of consumers and potential consumers of
services under review should also be included.

Recruiting Members
Recruiting can be accomplished in a variety of ways. Directors of organizations and agen-
cies may be asked (by phone, e-mail, or direct contact) to appoint a representative. If an
organizer of a group has a list of potential members, announcements can be mailed directly
to them. Announcements may be posted in public places. There may be television, newspa-
per, and radio announcements.

For ad hoc committees and standing committees within agencies, membership is usu-
ally determined by the director, by an executive committee of the agency, or in staff meet-
ings. For many task groups, direct contact with desired group members is often the most
effective recruitment approach.

Size of the Group
The organizer needs to make decisions regarding how many members are needed to
accomplish the tasks effectively and efficiently. There is no optimal size for task groups.

CHAPTER 6: Task Groups180

Larger groups are better for accomplishing complex tasks, partly because of the increase
in expertise and resources of a larger membership. In larger groups, fewer difficulties arise
when one or more members are absent. Larger groups also have disadvantages. Each mem-
ber has less of an opportunity to speak, and each member will receive less individualized
attention. There is also a greater danger of competing alliances being formed. Larger groups
are also more difficult for the leader to manage. They frequently require more formalized
procedures (such as parliamentary procedures) to accomplish their meeting agendas. They
also have greater difficulty achieving cohesiveness and reaching consensus.

Orienting Members to the Group
The purpose needs to be carefully explained. Members’ views about the importance of the
purpose need to be attended to. Members may be oriented by the organizer of the group
prior to the first meeting. During the first meeting, the purpose of the group should again
be reviewed, and perhaps attention should be given to establishing more specific goals
for the group. Individual goals of members may need to be discussed. Prior to the first
meeting, it may be desirable to send background material to the members. At the first
meeting, if questions arise about how the group will conduct its business, discussions
should occur, leading to the establishing of routine procedures. Task groups often adopt
the following routine procedure: reviewing and approving the minutes from the previous
meeting, making announcements, discussing old business, and bringing up and discuss-
ing new business.

Meeting Place and Room
The setting for the group has a profound effect on the conduct of group meetings and on
the behavior of group members. Room size, chair comfort, acoustics, seating arrangements,
furnishings, refreshments, and atmosphere should all be considered. Too large a room can
put too much distance between members and result in some members tuning out. Too
small a room can lead to discomfort and is especially challenging for anyone who tends to
be claustrophobic. People in wheelchairs will need wheelchair access. Carpeting, lighting,
work tables, and other furnishings need to be considered in order to create an informal,
comfortable atmosphere. Some people physically react to lighting that is too bright. Overly
dim lighting is annoying to many people.

First Meeting
If the members are not already familiar with one another, introduction of members by the
leader needs to be facilitated. For example, the leader may first introduce himself or herself
and give a brief description of his or her background experiences that are related to the
group’s purpose. Group members may then be asked to do the same, often in round-robin
fashion. Usually it is advantageous to then use an appropriate ice breaker, such as “Tell me
something personal about you that we would find surprising.”

The purpose and function of the group need to be discussed as they are perceived by
the leader, other members, and the sponsoring organization(s). The task and socioemo-
tional aspects of the group need to be attended to and balanced by the leader. Group goals
need to be set. The leader should attend to facilitating the members’ motivation to work
in the group. Perhaps obstacles to achieving individual and group goals may need to be
discussed.

It is helpful to have an agenda for the first, and future, meetings. Often, it is desirable to
send the agenda to members prior to the first meeting.

Working with Resistive and Disruptive Members
Resistance is to be expected. Ambivalent feelings about change are common, as it is rare for
changes to be proposed and worked on without ambivalent feelings. Acknowledging mem-
bers’ ambivalence is a helpful way to get members to recognize their reactions to change. An
open discussion of members’ ambivalence issues and their questions about the capacity of a
group to achieve a goal helps all members problem-solve and arrive at creative approaches

181 Comprehend How to Lead Task Groups

for achieving desired changes and goals. Leaders should treat members’ suggestions and
ideas about how to proceed with respect. (Additional material on working with disruptive
members is presented in Chapter 4.)

Although task groups are usually successful and useful, they can be a source of frustra-
tion for members when they function ineffectively. This writer remembers a college pro-
motions committee meeting he attended that lasted for 8 hours (from 4 p.m. to midnight),
dragging along simply because some committee members must “not have had a life,” as they
enjoyed the opportunity to talk about topics unrelated to promotions. Meetings that are not
run well are boring and unsatisfying. The leader has an obligation to keep the members
focused on the task and to move the meeting along to progress in completing the agenda
items. Toseland and Rivas state:

. . . well-run meetings can be a positive experience. They have drawn people together by
creating effective teamwork in which ideas are shared, feelings are expressed, and support
is developed for group members and for the decisions made by the group. There are few
experiences in the workplace to equal the sense of cohesion, commitment, and satisfaction
that members feel when their ideas have been heard, appreciated, and used in resolving a
difficult issue and arriving at a decision.2

The Middle Stages
The primary purpose of task groups are problem solving and decision making. Members,
including the leader, often need to complete a number of tasks related to accomplishing
group goals prior to meetings. (Some members are conscientious about doing this, whereas
some drive a group “crazy” by promising to do certain tasks and never completing them.)
When the latter happens and such people are identified, the group is probably better off not
assigning essential tasks to such members. In certain task groups parliamentary procedures
are used to conduct business. Most people learn parliamentary procedures through “mod-
eling.” They observe a group using parliamentary procedures and learn to use such pro-
cedures themselves (including making motions, seconding motions, having a discussion,
amending the motion, calling the questions, and voting on the motion or on the amended
motion.)

Adjourning a Meeting
When a meeting is near the ending time, it is often desirable for the leader to summarize
what has been accomplished during the meeting. It may be constructive to praise members
for their work. Future agenda items should be specified and recorded. Perhaps a statement
needs to be made about the progress that has been achieved in terms of the overall schedule.
It is also often desirable to summarize as clearly as possible the tasks that members agreed
to accomplish before the next meeting. The date, time, and place of the next meeting should
be established.

Evaluating and Terminating
It is essential for a group to evaluate the extent to which it has accomplished its goals dur-
ing the middle phases and when the group is nearing the time when it plans to terminate.
Evaluation methods and approaches are described at some length in Chapter 14.

The ending of a group is often a bittersweet experience for members. They are
pleased about their accomplishments (which may be celebrated with a get-together,
perhaps at a restaurant). The ending of a group may also have unpleasant aspects. Mem-
bers may be somewhat sad if the goals that were set have not been fully accomplished.
(This writer remembers a committee he worked on that involved writing a great pro-
posal; the members looked forward to doing the project if the grant was approved.
Sadly, it was not.) Some members may also experience sadness, as they have enjoyed
the camaraderie of working with others and realize it is ending. Some members may
have enjoyed the excitement that is generated when a group continues to creatively
problem-solve. Considerable material is provided on the process of terminating a task
group in Chapter 13.

CHAPTER 6: Task Groups182

EXERCISE 6.1 Successful and Unsuccessful Group Experiences

GOAL: This exercise is designed to have you reflect about how you felt when you participated in a successful group and when you
participated in an unsuccessful group.

1. Describe a successful group in which you participated. Indicate why you deemed this group as successful— perhaps the
goals were accomplished or perhaps you enjoyed the camaraderie, and so on.

2. What were the feelings you experienced about participating in this group?

3. Describe an unsuccessful group in which you participated. Indicate why you defined this group as unsuccessful—perhaps the
goals were not accomplished, you disliked certain members, or you were asked to leave, and so on.

183 Understand That One of the Major Functions of Task Groups Is Problem Solving

LO 3 Understand That One of the Major Functions
of Task Groups Is Problem Solving

PROBLEM-SOLVING APPROACH
In a nutshell, practically all of the work done by social work practitioners involves prob-
lem solving. Social workers use a problem-solving approach extensively to help individuals,
families, small groups, organizations, and community groups. Problem solving has been
defined by Johnson and Johnson as follows:

Problem solving is the process of resolving the unsettled matters of finding an answer to a
difficulty; it is a process that results in a solution to a problem, and it involves changing the
actual state of affairs until it is identical with the desired state of affairs.3

Problem solving can be broken down into six steps: (1) identifying and defining the prob-
lem, (2) assessing the size and causes of the problem, (3) developing alternative strate-
gies or plans for solving it, (4) assessing the merits and shortcomings of these alternative
strategies, (5) selecting and implementing the most desirable strategy or strategies, and
(6) evaluating the success of the strategies used.

Identification and Definition
The more precisely and accurately a problem is defined, the easier it is to solve. Contrast
the following two statements describing problems: “Fifty-seven young children in a six-
block-square area of this city are in need of care during the daytime because their parents
are working.” Here the terms of the problem are defined concretely. Because the problem
group, its locale, and a time period are specified, the problem can be easily addressed. Now
consider another example: “Some children in some school systems in this city seem to be
becoming more apathetic about the way their lives are going, and something should be
done about it.” Because no particular group and no clear symptoms have been identified,
there is no way to determine a solution.

When using the problem-solving approach, a group should initially (1) determine the
actual or current state of affairs and (2) specify the desired state of affairs. The differences
between the actual and desired state of affairs should be thoroughly discussed and agreed
upon. If the group concludes that serious negative consequences are associated with the
actual state of affairs, then members’ commitment to reach the desired state of affairs is apt
to be high.

4. What were the feelings you experienced about participating in this group?

CHAPTER 6: Task Groups184

Arriving at a group definition of a workable problem can be difficult. Brainstorming,
which is described in this chapter, can help develop descriptions of the problem. These
descriptions are then rephrased until an agreed-upon definition, including a precise state-
ment of both the actual and the desired state of affairs, is reached.

Assessment of Size and Causes
Once the workable problem is defined, the group next gathers information to help it assess
the magnitude and causes of the problem. In assessing the magnitude, the following ques-
tions arise: Who is affected? How many people are affected? How seriously? Where are they
located?

Often, identifying the causes of a problem will suggest strategies for resolving it. If
high unemployment is a problem in a state and most of the unemployed are untrained
for available jobs, this suggests that programs to train the unemployed for available jobs
will help alleviate unemployment. Only rarely is it possible to resolve a problem with-
out knowing its causes. For example, some urban renewal projects have rebuilt blighted
areas without knowing all the causes that led to the deterioration of housing and living
conditions.

Development of Alternative Strategies
The third problem-solving step is to formulate alternative ways to solve the problem. Brain-
storming is a useful technique for generating a wide range of strategies. Sometimes, the
wildest suggestions may stimulate other members to come up with one or more pragmatic
alternatives. If group members cannot produce workable strategies, outside experts may be
consulted as an alternative to brainstorming.

Assessment of Strategies
Next, the merits and shortcomings of each strategy must be assessed, and often a cost–
benefit analysis of each strategy is done. Costs include time, material resources, and pro-
fessional fees. Although the actual costs and benefits of each strategy are often difficult to
assess objectively, reasoned assessments must be made as to what resources will be needed
and what the outcomes of applying these resources will be. For example, if racial segrega-
tion is a problem in a large city, judgments must be made as to whether the costs of school
busing to achieve school integration (such as transportation costs and movement away
from the benefits of the neighborhood school concept) justify this type of busing.

Selection and Implementation
The fifth step involves two separate processes. The first is decision making, in which the
group selects one of the proposed alternatives. (Decision making in a group can be done
in a variety of ways. Many of these approaches are described later in this chapter.) After a
strategy is selected, the group must implement the strategy. Generally, the more solid the
group support for the selected strategy, the greater are the chances for its successful imple-
mentation. Required tasks must be identified, jobs assigned, and deadlines set for starting
and completing each task.

Evaluation
Once implementation is complete, evaluating the strategy’s success in two areas is neces-
sary: Was the strategy fully implemented, and what were its effects? The main criterion is
the extent to which the strategy has narrowed the discrepancy between the actual and the
desired state of affairs. This is why precise descriptions of each problem are necessary.

If the strategy was not fully implemented, then additional efforts may be required.
If the strategy has been fully implemented without achieving the desired state of affairs,
perhaps new strategies are in order. In addition, implementation of a strategy may expose
other problems. For example, the 1960s civil rights movement focused on reducing racial
discrimination. But it also generated awareness that many other groups are discriminated
against, including women, gays, lesbians, and people with a disability.

185 Understand That One of the Major Functions of Task Groups Is Problem Solving

The evaluation phase should demonstrate the extent to which the problem has been
resolved, what remains to be resolved, and what new problems have been identified. Not
surprisingly, the evaluation phase often leads to another problem-solving effort. The old
problem is redefined or another problem is identified. The steps of the problem-solving
approach are then repeated.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE PROBLEM SOLVING
There are several barriers to effective problem solving: inadequate definitions; invalid hypoth-
eses; poor communication; and lack of skills, resources, and motivation within the group.

Inadequate Definitions
If a problem is stated imprecisely, individual group members are apt to vary in their inter-
pretations of the problem. For example, take the following problem statement: “Children
are under too much pressure in our school systems.” Possible interpretations of “too much
pressure” include academic pressure, pressure to use alcohol and drugs, religious pressure,
pressure from teachers and parents, pressure resulting from racial tensions, pressure to have
sexual experiences, and pressure to break the law. Unless the problem is defined more pre-
cisely, group members will probably disagree on how to solve it.

Invalid Hypotheses
Closely related to inadequate definitions, invalid hypotheses and theories about the causes of
a problem also erect a formidable barrier. Emotionally disturbed people were once thought
to be possessed by demons, for example, and in the early 1900s, criminals were consid-
ered to be mentally retarded.4 Two hundred years ago, physicians thought that bloodletting
(through using leeches) would help heal people who were physically ill. If a group has faulty
theories about the causes of a problem, the members are apt to develop ineffective strategies
to solve it. For example, we know today that seeking to drive demons out of someone who
has emotional problems will not alleviate emotional trauma, and bloodletting does not heal.

Poor Communication
Poor communication in the group may exist for a variety of reasons. Group members may
not possess well-developed communication skills, or some may withhold information in an
attempt to manipulate others in the group. Interpersonal conflict between group members
may inhibit them from participating effectively. With poor communication, a group will
generate fewer alternative strategies and inadequately assess their potential consequences.
In addition, enthusiasm and commitment to implement the proposed group strategy will
be diminished.

Lack of Skills
A group may lack the skills to define and solve a problem. A group may not have the exper-
tise to design and conduct a necessary research study, for instance, or the skills to write
a grant proposal to obtain needed resources. When the group lacks an essential skill, the
group must acquire the skill by recruiting appropriate new members or retaining an outside
consultant.

Lack of Resources
There never seems to be sufficient financial resources to accomplish everything that is desired.
A planning group to combat the homeless problem, for example, may be partially stifled by
lack of funds to build a sufficient number of low-cost housing units for the homeless.

Lack of Motivation
Some groups fail to solve problems because their members are not motivated to do so.
By creating a supportive, trusting, cooperative atmosphere, a leader can encourage unmo-
tivated members to participate. Unmotivated members can be asked to share their rea-
sons for not participating, and perhaps changes can be made to encourage their input. The

CHAPTER 6: Task Groups186

motivated members can also carry the group to some initial successes in the hope that the
unmotivated members would be inspired to participate more. Relatively easy tasks could be
delegated to these individuals, who should be complimented for their efforts.

Personality Differences
Whenever you join a group of people together, personality differences may appear. These
differences may encourage a wide range of thinking; however, it may also lead to conflict.
When the conflict occurs early in a task, it may affect later tasks.5 Conflict can occur when
a group member takes things personally, feels left out, does not get the attention he or she
wants, or was not allowed to take on a desired role in the group. Personality differences
need to be acknowledged early and group conflict strategies need to be addressed to ensure
task completion is not held up.

LO 4 Utilize the Brainstorming Technique

BRAINSTORMING
Brainstorming is a procedure designed to generate ideas in quantity through the full par-
ticipation of all group members. The procedure helps individuals share their ideas without
the interruption of discussion or evaluation. By allowing members to present any idea that
comes to mind, more and often better ideas are generated than if the same people had
worked independently. Brainstorming was developed by Osborn, who outlined the follow-
ing ground rules nearly half a century ago.6 Brainstorming can last anywhere from 1 minute
to half an hour. The session continues as long as ideas are being generated. Each session
is to be freewheeling and open. The wilder and more absurd the ideas, the better, as these
ideas may lead to a breakthrough or a new course of action. Criticism or evaluation of any
idea is not allowed. The ideas are simply listed for the group as rapidly as possible without
comment, discussion, or clarification.

In this case the quantity of ideas counts, not quality. A greater number of ideas will
increase the likelihood of usable ideas. Members are encouraged to build on the ideas of
other group members whenever possible so that thoughts are expanded and new combina-
tions of ideas are formulated. The focus is always on a single issue or problem. Members
should not skip from problem to problem or try to brainstorm a multiproblem situation.

A relaxed, congenial, cooperative atmosphere should be promoted, and all members,
no matter how shy and reluctant to participate, should be encouraged to contribute. It is
often advisable to limit members to one idea at a time so that less vocal individuals will feel
encouraged to express their ideas. For new members unfamiliar with brainstorming, the
rationale and rules should be explained. If groups are being formed specifically for brain-
storming, the membership should include a diversity of opinions and backgrounds. After
the brainstorming session is over, the group selects the best ideas (or a synthesis of these
ideas) related to the issue or problem.

Brainstorming has a number of advantages because it increases involvement of all
members, reduces a group’s dependency upon a single authority figure, and provides a pro-
cedure for obtaining a large number of ideas in a relatively short period. The pressure to say
the “right things” to impress others in the group is reduced, and the process is interesting,
fun, and stimulating. An open sharing of ideas within a nonevaluative climate allows each
group member to build upon the ideas of others to create unique combinations.

If group members find brainstorming a strange experience, however, it can lead ini-
tially to a sense of discomfort.7 In a restricted, self-conscious group, brainstorming may
actually hinder participation, because it forces members into patterns of behavior that are
felt to be “uncomfortable.”8

In other situations, brainstorming may be effective as an ice breaker to open up a stuffy
and inhibited group.9 What effect brainstorming will have on the group depends partially
on the group leader’s skills and timing in using the approach.

187 More Effectively Resolve Interpersonal Conflicts

LO 5 More Effectively Resolve Interpersonal Conflicts

CONFLICT
Conflict is an antagonistic state of action involving divergent ideas or interests and is inevi-
table in groups. Johnson and Johnson summarize the potential merits and dangers of a
conflict in a group:

A conflict among group members is a moment of truth in group effectiveness, a test of the
group’s health, a crisis that can weaken or strengthen the group, a critical event that may
bring creative insight and closer relationships among members—or lasting resentment,
smoldering hostility, and psychological scars. Conflicts can push members away from one
another or pull them into closer and more cooperative relationships. Conflicts may contain
the seeds of group destruction or the seeds of a more unified and cooperative unit . . . They
have the potential for producing both highly constructive and highly destructive conse-
quences for group functioning.10

Many people in our society erroneously believe that conflicts only produce negative results
and should be avoided. Conflict is seen as a cause of divorce, low work morale, deteriora-
tion of friendships, psychological trauma, violence, and social disorder. In reality, the cause
of these destructive events is the ineffective and harmful management of conflicts. Because
people have divergent interests, beliefs, values, and goals, it is inevitable that conflicts will
occur in interpersonal relationships.

Conflicts are not only a natural part of any relationship within a group; they are also
desirable because when handled effectively, they have a number of payoffs. Without con-
flict, members may become bored, and disagreements often spark the interest and curiosity
of group members and produce lively discussions. Conflicts motivate members to define
issues more sharply, search harder for resolution strategies, and work harder in implement-
ing solutions. Conflicts can also lead to greater commitment, cohesion, communication,
and cooperation and can revitalize stagnant groups. By expressing and working out their
dissatisfactions, group members can assess their beliefs, values, and opinions. Therefore,
verbal conflicts can also lead to personal growth and encourage innovation and creativity.

TECHNIQUES FOR RESOLVING CONFLICTS
There are a variety of strategies for resolving conflicts. These strategies will be summarized
in the following sections.

Win-Lose Approach
In ineffective groups, resolutions of conflict between opposing positions become win-lose
situations. In many competitive fields, such as sports, business, and politics, individuals or
teams are pitted against each other. In groups, conflicts are often cast in the same competitive
mold. Because each side denies the legitimacy of the other’s interests and concerns, members
attempt to sell their position without really listening to the other side. Power blocs are formed
to support one position against another. The original goals and objectives of the group may
fade into the background as a “win” on issues becomes the only objective of the warring sides.

In win-lose situations, the group as a whole loses because it fails to achieve its long-
range goals and objectives. The losing side is not motivated to carry out the winning deci-
sion. The losers resent the winners and may attempt to reverse the decision or impede its
implementation. In such an atmosphere, distrust increases between opposing sides, com-
munication becomes more limited and inaccurate, and group cohesion decreases. Members’
unresolved feelings often result in biased judgments and actions; members will frequently
refuse to vote for a good idea simply because they dislike the person who suggested it.

Obviously, communication is severely hampered in groups that handle conflict in a win-
lose fashion. Conflict in win-lose situations leads to the denial or distortion of unpleasant
facts and information, as each side is apt to deny, hide, or distort information inconsistent
with its position in an effort to win.11 Members misinterpret the ideas and actions of those

CHAPTER 6: Task Groups188

EXERCISE 6.2 My Tolerance for Conflicts

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in assessing whether you need to become more assertive in confronting interper-
sonal conflicts.

1. Do you shy away (by usually giving in) from interpersonal conflicts? If “yes,” explain your reasons.

2. If you shy away from interpersonal conflicts, do you feel when you give in that the other person is “trodding” on your personal
rights?

3. Do you believe that you need to more assertively confront your interpersonal conflicts? If “yes,” what do you intend to do in
order to become more assertive in confronting conflicts?

189 More Effectively Resolve Interpersonal Conflicts

perceived as opponents, causing “blind spots” in communication. A win-lose approach leads
to deceitful expression of ideas and feelings because winning sometimes receives higher pri-
ority than honesty. Disagreement tends to be interpreted as personal rejection on the part of
opposing group members, and the group’s future decisions are generally poor.

No-Lose Problem Solving
The no-lose problem-solving approach asserts that it is almost always possible for both sides
to have their needs met in a conflict situation. This approach, which is a variation of the prob-
lem-solving approach described earlier in this chapter, was developed by Gordon and is based
on two basic premises: (1) all people have the right to have their needs met and (2) what is in
conflict between the two sides is almost never their needs, but their solutions to those needs.12

The distinction between needs and solutions is all-important. For example, assume that
a student social work club is arguing over whether to fund a graduation party for seniors
or a campus day care center in danger of being closed. An analysis of needs and solutions
in this discussion would reveal that the club is arguing over solutions rather than needs.
There is a need to honor the graduating seniors and a need for the day care center to receive
operating funds. However, there are a variety of ways of meeting both needs. The club may
spend its current funds on a graduation party and then hold a fundraiser for the day care
center; or they may fund the center and hold a graduation party by having members donate
food, refreshments, and a few dollars at the party. Half of the club’s funds could go to the
center and the remainder to a reduced-cost graduation party. In addition, many other solu-
tions could be generated to meet these needs.

The six steps to the no-lose problem-solving approach are:

1. Identify and define the needs of each opposing side.
2. Generate possible alternative solutions.
3. Evaluate the alternative solutions.
4. Decide on the best acceptable solution.
5. Work out ways of implementing the solution.
6. Evaluate how it worked.13

The first step is by far the most difficult because group members often view conflicts in
terms of win-lose and attempt to identify and meet primarily their own needs. When each
side’s needs in a conflict are identified, however, what usually are in conflict are not the
needs of each side but their solutions. No-lose problem solving will generally lead to creative
solutions after all six steps are followed. (Readers will note the “no-lose problem-solving
process” is identical to the “problem-solving process” described earlier in this chapter.)

The advantages of this no-lose approach are that both sides fulfill their needs, and
group harmony and cohesion are increased. The resentment, hostility, and subversive
actions of a win-lose situation are also eliminated. Actually, it is in each group member’s
best interest to resolve conflicts in a way that will help all members achieve their short-term
goals and needs and increase the long-term effectiveness of the group, so that the long-term
goals and needs of all members have a better chance of being achieved. Frequently, with
groups that function in terms of win-lose, the winning side may win some battles, but the
effectiveness of the group may diminish. All members may thus fail to accomplish their
long-term goals and satisfy their needs.

With a problem-solving approach, members tend to listen to one another, recognize the
legitimacy of another’s interests, and influence one another with rational arguments. Instead
of a competitive environment, problem solving encourages an atmosphere of cooperation.

The differences between a win-lose strategy and a problem-solving strategy are sum-
marized in Figure 6.1. A cooperative problem-solving approach in a group also promotes
creativity. Creativity is a process of bringing something new into existence; it results from
productive controversy. Because a problem is viewed from new perspectives, new alterna-
tives can be suggested and formulated for resolving the problem.

Deutsch has identified three means of fostering creativity in a group14: (1) an appropri-
ate level of motivation for finding a viable solution must be aroused, (2) there must be a

CHAPTER 6: Task Groups190

FIGURE 6.1 Win-Lose Strategy Versus Problem-Solving Strategy

WIN-LOSE STRATEGY PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY

The conflict is defined as a win-lose situation. The conflict is viewed as a problem.

Each side seeks solutions to meet only its need. Each person seeks to find solutions to meet the needs of all
members.

Each side attempts to force the other side into submission. Each person cooperates with others to find mutually acceptable
compromises.

Each side increases its power by emphasizing its independence
from the other and the other’s dependence upon itself.

Each person equalizes power by emphasizing interdependence.

Each side inaccurately, deceitfully, and misleadingly communi-
cates its goals, needs, and ideas; information inconsistent
or harmful to one’s position is not shared.

Each person honestly and openly communicates goals, needs,
and ideas.

No expression of empathy or understanding is made of the
views, values, and opinions of the other side.

Efforts are made to convey empathy and understanding of
the views, values, and opinions of others.

Threats are used to attempt to force the other side into submission. Threats are avoided to reduce the defensiveness of others.

Rigid adherence to one’s position is expressed. A willingness to be flexible is expressed.

Changes in position are made very slowly in an effort to force
concessions from the other side.

Positions are changed readily to help in problem solving.

No suggestions are sought from third parties, as the focus is on
forcing the other side to give in.

Third parties are sought to help in problem solving.

cooperative problem-solving atmosphere in the group that allows members to reformulate
the problem once an impasse has been reached, and (3) diverse ideas must be suggested or
available that can be flexibly put together into new and varied solutions.

Groups are most creative when the motivational level is high enough for members to
maintain problem-solving efforts despite frustrations and dead ends. However, this level
should not be so high that it overwhelms the group by causing members to become too tense
to concentrate. Excessive tension leads to defensiveness and reduces receptiveness to inno-
vative approaches. Too much anxiety inhibits members from fully expressing their views,
interferes with their listening to the views of others, and often leads to closed-mindedness.

Creative group members seek out different ways of looking at the problem and inno-
vative ways of resolving it in an open-minded way. That is, a member assesses relevant
information based on its own merits, not on how it resembles or differs from his or her
own ideas, opinions, and assumptions. When conflict occurs between two members, each
can listen to the other’s criticisms, judge their validity fairly, and suggest new strategies that
take into account both members’ concerns. This leads to a creative solution to the problem.

In contrast, a closed-minded person views relevant information from his or her own
assumptions, beliefs, and frame of reference.15 Closed-minded members emphasize the dif-
ferences between what they believe and do not believe, ignoring or denying information
contrary to their value system. They tend to have contradictory beliefs that they fail to ques-
tion, and in their efforts to defend these beliefs, they stifle creativity.

Role Reversal
A useful strategy in resolving both intragroup and intergroup conflict is role reversal. The
basic rule for role reversal is this: Each person expresses his or her opinions or views only after
restating the ideas and feelings of the opposing person. These ideas and feelings should be
restated in one’s own words rather than parroted or mimicked in the exact words of the other
person. It is advisable to begin the restatement with words such as “Your position is . . . ,”
“You seem to be saying . . . ,” or “You apparently feel . . .” Approval or disapproval, blaming,
giving advice, interpreting, or persuading should be avoided.

191 More Effectively Resolve Interpersonal Conflicts

In addition, nonverbal messages should be consistent with the verbal paraphrasing and
convey interest, openness, and attentiveness to the opposition’s ideas and feelings. Above
all, role reversal should be the expression of a sincere interest in understanding the other
person’s feelings, ideas, and position.

Role reversal can result in a reevaluation and a change of attitude concerning the issue
by both parties because the group members involved are apt to be perceived as people who
are understanding, willing to compromise, cooperative, and trustworthy.16 The approach
has also been found to increase cooperative behavior between role reversers, to clarify mis-
understandings, to change win-lose situations into problem-solving situations, and, most
important, to allow the issue to be perceived from the opponent’s frame of reference.

A shortcoming of this approach is that some people do not like being forced to repeat
the words spoken by the person they are in conflict with. Other people do not like hearing
the words they have just spoken repeated. For both of these types of people, the following
technique is often more acceptable and more effective.

Empathy
A technique closely related to role reversal is the expression of empathy. Empathy involves
putting yourself in the shoes of the person you are in conflict with and expressing your
understanding of what she is thinking and saying. Some examples of phrases that are useful
in helping you express empathy are:

“What you seem to be saying is . . .”
“I take it that you think . . .”
“I sense that you feel _____ about this issue.”

When expressing empathy, it is essential to mirror what was said in a nonjudgmental
way that will help you grasp the essence of what the other person is thinking or feeling.

Similar to role reversal, empathy is used to facilitate open communication, assist in
clarifying misunderstandings, increase cooperative behavior, and facilitate the process of
no-lose problem solving.

Inquiry
If you are in conflict with someone and you are confused regarding his or her thoughts and
feelings, the inquiry technique may be useful. This technique involves using gentle, probing

EXERCISE 6.3 Creativity Inspired by Conflict

GOAL: This exercise is designed to help you understand how conflict often inspires creativity.

Describe a conflict that you had with someone that inspired a creative solution that was satisfying to you and to the other
person.

CHAPTER 6: Task Groups192

questions to learn more about what the other person is thinking and feeling. Tone of voice
is crucial in inquiry because asking a question sarcastically or defensively is apt to draw
defensive responses from the person you are in conflict with.

I-Messages
As described in Chapter 5, the technique of using I-messages also facilitates more open
and honest communication between parties in conflict. In contrast, you-messages tend to
increase defensiveness between parties in conflict.

Disarming
When you are in conflict with someone, using the disarming technique is frequently an effec-
tive strategy in resolving the conflict. The disarming technique involves finding some truth in
what the other person (or side) is saying and then expressing your “agreement”—even if you
feel that the other person is largely wrong, unreasonable, irrational, or unfair. There is always a
grain of truth in what the other person says, even if it sounds obnoxious and insulting. When
you disarm the other person with this technique, the individual will recognize that you respect
him or her. Once disarmed, the other person will not feel so dogmatic and will be less likely
to insist that he or she is entirely right and you are entirely wrong. As a result, the individual
is apt to be more willing to examine the merits of your point of view. If you want respect, give
respect first. If you want to be listened to, disarming helps you listen to the other person first
and facilitates open (rather than defensive) communication. Friendly responses facilitate open
communication, whereas hostile responses usually produce defensive communication.

In using the disarming technique, it is important to be genuine in what you say and to
express your agreement sincerely.

Stroking
Closely related to disarming, stroking is saying something genuinely positive to the person
(or side) you are in conflict with, even in the heat of battle. Stroking tells the other person
that you respect him or her, even though both of you may be angry. During an argument
or conflict, you are apt to feel the need to reject the other person before you get rejected (to
“save face”). Often, people overreact and differences of opinion are blown out of propor-
tion. To prevent this rejection, simply let the other person know that, although you are at
odds, you still think highly of him or her. This makes it easier for the other person to open
up and to listen because he or she will feel less threatened.

Letting Go or Forgiving
If we hold a long-term grudge against someone, we are primarily hurting (both emotionally
and healthwise) ourselves. Emotionally we hurt ourselves by being in a state of periodic
anger (which occurs when we think about the perceived “wrong”). By holding a grudge, we
also raise our level of stress, which, as described in Chapter 11, often leads to a variety of
stress-related illnesses. Mentally nursing a grudge puts your body through the same strains
as a major stressful event—muscles tense, blood pressure rises, and sweating increases.

Two strategies to get rid of holding a long-term grudge are “letting go” and forgiv-
ing. With the “letting go” strategy, we reframe our thinking so that we no longer dwell on
the perceived wrong. One way of reframing our thinking is to do a rational self-analysis
(described in Module 1). If there is no way to change a perceived “wrong,” the best thing we
can do for our mental and physical well-being is to “let go” of it.

Forgiveness is actually another strategy for “letting go.” When you forgive someone
who has hurt you, you make yourself—rather than the person who hurt you—responsible
for your happiness.

Mediation
In the past two decades, mediation has increasingly been used to resolve conflicts between
disputing groups. The federal government established federal mediators way back in 1913
to help resolve issues between employers and employees.17 It was expected that mediated

193 More Effectively Resolve Interpersonal Conflicts

EXERCISE 6.4 Disarming and Stroking

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in understanding and applying disarming and stroking to resolve conflict.

1. Describe an experience where two people were having a conflict (one of those people may have been you) and the conflict
was resolved (at least partially) by one of the people using disarming or stroking.

2. Summarize your thoughts on the merits and shortcomings of disarming and stroking in resolving conflict.

settlements would prevent costly strikes or lockouts for workers and employers alike and
that the welfare and safety of Americans would be protected. Federal use of mediation in
labor disputes set a precedent for many states to pass laws and train a cadre of mediators to
handle intrastate labor conflicts.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 created the Community Relations Service of the U.S.
Department of Justice to use mediation to resolve disputes relating to discriminatory prac-
tices based on race, color, or national origin.18 Diverse private agencies, civil rights com-
missions, and state agencies now use mediation to handle charges of sex, race, and ethnic
discrimination. The federal government funds neighborhood justice centers that provide
free or low-cost mediation services to the public to resolve disputes informally, inexpen-
sively, and efficiently.19 Disputes settled through mediation are resolved much more effi-
ciently and creatively than those resolved in court. Mediation is also used in schools and
colleges to settle disputes between students, between students and faculty, between faculty
members, and between faculty and administration. The criminal justice system uses media-
tion to resolve disputes in correctional facilities, for example, prison riots, hostage negotia-
tions, and institutionalized grievance procedures.

Mediation is also used extensively in family disputes involving child custody and
divorce proceedings, disputes between parents and children, conflicts involving adoption
and the termination of parental rights, and domestic violence situations.

Moore states, “In family disputes, mediated and consensual settlements are often more
appropriate and satisfying than litigated or imposed court outcomes.”20

CHAPTER 6: Task Groups194

Mediation is used to settle disputes between business partners, private individuals,
governmental agencies and individuals, landlords and tenants, businesses and customers,
and in personal injury cases.

Many professionals now occasionally act as mediators to help people or groups in con-
flict resolve their concerns. Such professionals include attorneys, social workers, psycholo-
gists, and guidance counselors. A few social workers, attorneys, and other professionals are
working full time as mediators—often in public or private mediation agencies.

Moore defines mediation as follows:

Mediation involves the intervention of an acceptable, impartial, and neutral third party
who has no authoritative decision-making power to assist contending parties in voluntarily
reaching their own mutually acceptable settlement of issues in dispute . . . Mediation leaves
the decision-making power in the hands of the people in conflict. Mediation is a voluntary
process in that the participants must be willing to accept the assistance of the intervener if
the dispute is to be resolved. Mediation is usually initiated when the partners no longer be-
lieve that they can handle the conflict on their own and when the only means of resolution
appears to involve impartial third-party assistance.21

There are various models of the mediation process.22 As an illustration, the model developed by
Blades will be summarized.23According to Blades, the mediation process involves five stages:

1. Introduction/Commitment: This first stage usually is accomplished in a 1- to 2-hour
session. The mediator sets ground rules, describes mediation, answers questions, dis-
cusses fees, and seeks to gain a commitment to the process from the two parties. The
mediator also seeks to develop an understanding of the more pressing issues, gains a
sense of the personal dynamics of the two parties, and tries to ascertain whether they
are ready and willing to mediate. If one or both of the parties are not willing to medi-
ate, then the mediation probably should not proceed. If one or both of the parties are
hesitant to proceed, the mediator usually describes the alternatives to mediation—
such as a lengthy and expensive court battle.

2. Definition: The two parties, with the mediator’s assistance, define the areas in which
they already agree and disagree. Certain disputes, such as division of property issues in
divorce mediation, are apt at this stage to require a considerable amount of information.

3. Negotiation: Once the two parties agree on the issues in conflict and relevant factual
information on these issues is obtained, the two parties are ready to begin negotiat-
ing. At this stage the mediator seeks to have the parties focus on one issue at a time. A
problem-solving approach is used in which the needs of each party are first identified
and alternatives are generated. The mediator recedes into the background when dis-
cussions are proceeding well and steps in when emotions intensify or when the two
parties are overlooking creative solutions that will meet their needs.

4. Agreement: Once alternatives are generated and related facts are evaluated, the two
parties are ready to begin making agreements on the issues. The role of the media-
tor is to maintain a cooperative atmosphere and to keep the two parties focused on a
manageable number of issues. The mediator summarizes areas of agreement and pro-
vides legal or other information necessary to a discussion. The mediator helps the two
parties examine the merits and shortcomings of the options. During this stage the
mediator praises the parties for the progress they are making and gets them to praise
themselves for progress made. A mediator seeks to create a positive atmosphere.

5. Contracting: In this final stage of mediation, the two parties review the agreements
and clarify any ambiguities. The agreements are almost always written in the form of
a contract, which is available for future reference. Either party, the mediator, or every-
one together may do the actual writing of the contract. The contract expresses what
each party agrees to do and may set deadlines for the diverse tasks to be completed.
It also specifies consequences if either party fails to meet the terms of the contract.
Mediators seek to have specific agreements stated in concrete form to prevent future
controversies. The ultimate goal of mediation is a contract in which no one is a loser
and that both parties willingly abide by.

195 More Effectively Resolve Interpersonal Conflicts

FIGURE 6.2 Two Examples of Using the Law of Requisite Variety

Janice and Pete Palmer were married about a year ago. Unknown to Janice, Pete was having lunch about once a month with a former
partner (Paula) whom he dated over a 3-year period. Seven months ago Janice walked into a restaurant at noon and saw her hus-
band with Paula. In a fit of rage, Janice stomped out. That evening she and Pete had a major uproar about this. Pete claimed Paula
was just a friend and that nothing romantic was occurring. Janice yelled and screamed. Pete indicated he would stop having lunch
with Paula. But he did not keep his promise. About once a month he continued to see Paula, and when Janice found out, there was a
major argument. Janice suggested a number of resolution options, including marriage counseling. Pete refused to go to counseling
and indicated he had decided (the win-lose approach) that he was going to continue having lunch with Paula. Then one day Janice
ran into one of her former partners—Dave. Dave invited Janice for lunch or dinner. A light bulb went on for Janice—she accepted
the invitation and made plans for dinner. She went home and gleefully told Pete she ran into Dave (who Pete knew had dated Janice
in the past). Pete became jealous and tried to talk Janice out of having dinner with Dave. Janice said “No way. If it’s OK for you to
see Paula, then it follows that it’s OK for me to see Dave.” Pete was in anguish during the time Janice and Dave were having dinner.
When Janice came home, Pete politely said he had called Paula that evening to inform her he was canceling their next scheduled
lunch and that he felt it was best that they no longer meet for lunch. Pete then asked Janice if she also would no longer get together
with. Dave. She said, “Yes.” Through this experience, Pete and Janice learned to respect and appreciate each other to a greater extent.

Vicki Stewart was a secretary for an attorney, Randy Fuller, who frequently criticized her and never complimented her. The
harder she sought to perform well, the more, it seemed she was criticized. She tried a variety of resolution strategies—discussing
the conflict with him, discussing it with his supervisor, and making a point of complimenting him to set a good example. Nothing
worked. Finally, she decided upon a new approach. Mr. Fuller’s grammar and spelling were atrocious. Ms. Stewart always improved
the spelling and grammar when given rough drafts from Mr. Fuller and the other attorneys in the office. When Mr. Fuller gave her a
rough draft of a legal brief to the state supreme court, Ms. Stewart typed it as is and sent it after Mr. Fuller signed it (he frequently
signed such documents without proofreading them). When Mr. Fuller finally read the brief 3 weeks later, he was first angry and then
discussed the matter with his supervisor. His supervisor at first laughed and then informed Mr. Fuller that in order to avoid a similar
situation in the future, he needed to show appreciation to Ms. Stewart. After a few more days of reflecting about it, Mr. Fuller decided
it was in his personal interest to display more respect and appreciation to Ms. Stewart.

One of the major techniques a mediator uses is a caucus.24At times a mediator or either
party may stop the mediation and request a caucus. In a caucus the two parties are physically
separated from each other, and there is no direct communication between them. The media-
tor meets with one of the parties or with both parties individually. There are a wide variety
of reasons for calling a caucus. A caucus may be used to vent intense emotions privately,
to clarify misperceptions, to reduce unproductive or repetitive negative behavior, to seek
clarification of a party’s interests, to provide a pause for each party to consider an alternative,
to convince an uncompromising party that the mediation process is better than going to
court, to uncover confidential information, to educate an inexperienced disputant about the
processes of mediation, or to design alternatives that will later be brought to a joint session.

Some parties are willing in a caucus to privately express possible concessions. Usually
such concessions are conditional upon the other party making certain concessions. By the
use of caucuses, a mediator can go back and forth, relaying information from one party to
the other and seek to develop a consensus.

What If These Strategies Do Not Work?
If used appropriately, these strategies will help resolve interpersonal conflicts in the vast
majority of cases. When these strategies fail to work, you can probably correctly conclude
that the person you are in conflict with does not really want to resolve the conflict. Perhaps
the other person is a hostile person who wants to generate conflicts to meet his or her
personal needs in order to vent his or her anger and hostility. Or perhaps the other person
really wants to be in conflict with you in order to make your life uncomfortable.

What can you do when you become aware that the other person really wants to sustain
the conflict with you? Using the Law of Requisite Variety is an option. This law states that
if you continue to creatively come up with new ways of responding to the daggers being
thrown at you, eventually the other person will grow tired of the turmoil and will finally
decide to bury the hatchet. Two examples are presented in Figure 6.2.

CHAPTER 6: Task Groups196

EXERCISE 6.5 Resolving Your Conflicts Effectively

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in learning how to resolve interpersonal conflicts more effectively.

1. Describe a serious interpersonal conflict that you had with someone who was important to you.

2. What conflict resolution strategies did you use to attempt to resolve the conflict?

INTERGROUP CONFLICT
Just as there is conflict within groups, conflicts often arise between groups. Within a sin-
gle organization, various groups are often forced to vie for funding, human resources, and
power. For example, in a university, members of different department faculties (for example,
sociology, psychology, social work) may have conflicts over which department will receive
authorization to add a new course (such as human sexuality), which department will be
given a new faculty position, what the budget allocation for each department will be, and
which department will use what human service agencies for field placements for students.

As with intragroup conflict, the sides involved in intergroup (or between-group) con-
flict can use either a win-lose approach or a no-lose problem-solving approach to attempt
to resolve the conflict. The same advantages and disadvantages described for intragroup
conflicts hold true for intergroup conflicts.

When the conflicts are formulated in terms of win-lose situations, the results are both pre-
dictable and destructive.25 Each group becomes much more cohesive as members join together
to defend their group against attack; members will close ranks and frequently put aside intra-
group conflicts. Group members become more willing to accept autocratic leadership because
rapid, consistent decisions must be made and “a solid front” presented. The groups in conflict
tend to become more polarized as each perceives its position as right and moral, and the oppos-
ing groups are belittled and devalued. Members’ satisfaction with the group increases because
they feel an increased sense of identity with their group and an increased sense of belonging.

Hostility increases between the two groups. Distortions in perceptions increase as each
group highlights the best parts of itself and the worst parts of the other group. Communi-
cation and interaction between the groups decrease as each group assigns inaccurate and
uncomplimentary stereotypes to the opposing group and views it as distinctly inferior.

197 More Effectively Resolve Interpersonal Conflicts

3. What conflict resolution strategies did the other person seek to use?

4. Has the conflict been successfully resolved? If “yes,” describe what led to the resolution. If “no,” specify why it has not been resolved.

5. Review the conflict resolution techniques described in this chapter. Specify those that you believe might have been effective
in more rapidly resolving the conflict. Provide an explanation for your views.

6. Which conflict resolution techniques do you intend to use in the future?

CHAPTER 6: Task Groups198

Because group members often misinterpret the other side’s position, distrust is height-
ened, and negotiators are often selected from each group to work out differences. These
negotiators tend to be the most militant leaders of each group and tend to assert only their
group’s position rather than work toward a creative agreement that will meet the needs of
all sides. They want at any cost to avoid giving in so that they are not branded as losers or
traitors. If a third party is brought in to decide the dispute, the winning side will view the
third party as fair and objective, whereas the losing side will view the third party as biased,
thoughtless, and irrational.

There are two usual outcomes when intergroup conflict is cast in a win-lose mold.
One outcome is a stalemate, in which the opposing groups continue battling and remain
deadlocked, perhaps for years. In the other outcome, one side wins and the other side loses.

The side that loses initially loses cohesiveness and may even disband. Members analyze
the reasons for losing, often place blame, and then quarrel among themselves. Previous
unresolved conflicts surface and tension increases. The group often finds a scapegoat, such
as the leader, the third-party negotiator, or the least conforming members of the group.
If an “ineffective” leader is blamed for the defeat, he or she may be replaced. Through a
reassessment of the loss, the group reshapes some of its goals and reexamines its positive
stereotypes of itself and its negative stereotypes of the opposing groups. This, in effect, may
lead to a more realistic assessment of itself and of the opposing groups. Once a loss has been
accepted, a losing group that sees hope of victories in the future may reorganize and again
become effective. If future victories appear impossible, members may become so demoral-
ized, depressed, and apathetic that they drift away from the group or become uninvolved
and nonproductive.

The group that wins generally celebrates and feels a strong sense of cohesion. It becomes
self-satisfied, loses its fighting spirit, and members tend to relax, perhaps even becoming
playful, while putting forth little effort for group work. Consequently, the winning group
makes few changes—it is content.

In contrast to the win-lose approach, a problem-solving strategy can be used to
resolve intergroup conflict through a variety of structural arrangements. One arrange-
ment is for the leaders or representatives of each group to meet, or, if the groups are small
enough, a meeting of all the members involved can be scheduled. If necessary, a mediator
can be chosen to call a meeting of representatives from the groups, or an ongoing com-
mittee of representatives from each group can be selected to work on present conflicts and
new issues.

Calling a meeting is the easy part; the hard part is to convince each side that it is in
the best interest of everyone to use a problem-solving approach. The benefits of using a
problem-solving approach for intergroup conflict are the same as those described for intra-
group conflict in this chapter. One way of pointing the conflicting groups in this direction
is to (1) briefly summarize the disadvantages and likely future problems in using a win-
lose approach, (2) indicate the potential benefits to all sides in using a problem-solving
approach, and (3) ask the groups in conflict to try the problem-solving approach.

The most important point about intergroup conflict is that it is much better if each side
uses a cooperative, problem-solving approach rather than a win-lose approach. Group lead-
ers must be aware that it is very difficult to undo the negative feelings and resentments that
result from a competitive win-lose situation. If need be, third-party mediators or arbitrators
should be brought in early in a win-lose conflict to turn the situation around.

The win-lose strategy and the no-lose problem-solving strategy are frequently mutu-
ally exclusive. If two groups are in conflict, negotiators for each side cannot be both honest
and deceitful. They cannot simultaneously convey and withhold empathy and understand-
ing or use threats to win and avoid threats in order to reduce defensiveness. Moreover, these
negotiators cannot simultaneously be flexible and rigid.

Although the problem-solving approach is by far the most desirable, a win-lose
approach may be necessary when an opposing side refuses to use a problem-solving strat-
egy. Being open, flexible, and willing to make concessions to a group using a win-lose strat-
egy may increase the chances of being exploited and of losing.

199 Understand That a Second Major Function of Task Groups Is Decision Making

LO 6 Understand That a Second Major Function
of Task Groups Is Decision Making

DECISION MAKING
The effectiveness of a group largely depends on its ability to make good, sound decisions
on such issues as when to meet, how meetings will be conducted, why the group is meet-
ing, and what it will do. Decisions almost always involve choosing among several different
options and reaching a consensus. Members of some groups are only vaguely aware of how
decisions are made, whereas others spend hours debating how decisions will be made. Sel-
dom is the same procedure used for arriving at all decisions in a group, as different circum-
stances warrant varied decision-making processes. In our society, important decisions are
usually made by groups rather than individuals. If a problem or issue is complex, a group
usually makes a better decision than an individual.26

The Bases of Decisions
Most people tend to believe that decisions are made primarily on the basis of objective facts
and figures. In fact, values and assumptions form the bases of most decisions, and facts
and figures are used only in relation to these subjective, learned experiences. Consider the
following list of questions. What do they indicate about how we make our most important
decisions?

1. Should abortions be permitted or prohibited during the first weeks following
conception?

2. Should homosexuality be viewed as a natural expression of sexuality?
3. When does harsh disciplining of a child become child abuse?
4. When should confidentiality be violated?
5. Should the primary objective of imprisonment be rehabilitation or retribution?

Answers to these questions are not usually based on data uncovered after careful research;
they are based on individual beliefs about the value of life, personal freedom, and protective
social standards. Even everyday decisions are based largely on values.

Practically every decision is also based on certain assumptions. Without assumptions,
nothing can be proven. Assumptions are made in every research study to test any hypoth-
esis. In a market survey, for example, analysts assume that the instruments they use (such as
a questionnaire) will be valid and reliable. It cannot even be proven the sun will rise in the
east tomorrow without assuming that its history provides that proof. The same holds true for
groups involved in decision making. For example, if a local group decides that busing should
be used to facilitate racial integration, it probably assumes busing will have certain benefits.
On the other hand, if a group decides not to use school busing, it is assuming the probable
costs will outweigh the predicted benefits. In either case, the assumption cannot be proven
beforehand. Proof comes only when the decision is implemented and its effects are evaluated.

The purpose of statistical information and research studies is to test assumptions,
hypotheses, and beliefs. All of the following are beliefs held by many Americans:

● The death penalty has a deterrent effect on people who are considering committing
serious crimes such as homicide.

● Most welfare recipients are able to work but would rather live it up on welfare.
● Patients with mental illness are more likely to commit a crime than other people.
● Gay men are apt to display effeminate mannerisms.
● Crimes committed by the lower class are the most costly in our society.

That each of these beliefs has been invalidated by research shows the importance of sci-
entifically testing beliefs. Research demonstrates that a country’s adoption of a death pen-
alty generally does not result in a decrease in homicide rates or in rates of other serious
crimes.27 Only a small fraction of welfare recipients are able to work—the vast majority
cannot work because they are children, are beyond the age of retirement, have a disability,

CHAPTER 6: Task Groups200

or are homebound mothers with young children.28 People labeled as mentally ill are no more
likely to commit crimes than people considered sane.29 Gay males are no more apt to be
effeminate than male heterosexuals,30and white-collar crime appears to be the most costly
in our society.31

APPROACHES TO DECISION MAKING
Before discussing an issue leading to a decision, a group must know what decision-mak-
ing approach it will use because different approaches lead to diverse consequences for the
future operation of the group. An effective group is aware of these consequences and must
choose the best approach considering the amount of time available, the nature of the deci-
sion to be made, and the kind of atmosphere the group wants to create. The nature of the
task, the history of the group, and the kind of setting in which the group is working must
also be considered. Six decision-making approaches will be discussed:

1. Consensus of the group
2. Simple majority vote
3. Two-thirds or three-fourths majority vote
4. Delegated decisions
5. Multiple voting
6. Averaging individual opinions

Consensus
This approach is the most effective for motivating all group members to support and work
for the decision because everyone comes to agree with the final decision. This approach
is also the most time consuming, as the concerns of each member have to be recognized.
Johnson and Johnson describe consensus as follows:

Consensus is more commonly defined as a collective opinion arrived at by a group of people
working together under conditions that permit communications to be sufficiently open—
and the group climate to be sufficiently supportive—so that everyone in the group feels he
has had his fair chance to influence the decision. When a decision is made by consensus, all
members understand the decision and are prepared to support it. Operationally, consensus
means that all members can rephrase the decision to show that they understand it, that all
members have had a chance to tell how they feel about the decision, and that those mem-
bers who continue to disagree or have doubts will, nevertheless, say publicly that they are
willing to give the decision an experimental try for a period of time.32

To use consensus effectively, the group must have a trusting, cooperative atmosphere.
Members must feel free to present their views but must do so as clearly and logically as pos-
sible. They must refrain from blindly arguing their own individual views and listen to and
respect the views of other members. Members should also avoid going along with the group
if they believe the majority opinion is a mistake. It is dangerous to yield to the majority if
the only reason is to avoid conflict and to appear united. This type of conforming can lead
to dangerous groupthink, described later in this chapter. Members, however, should yield
to the majority opinion if that position appears to have merit and has a fair chance for posi-
tive outcomes.

Differences of opinion should be sought and dealt with respectfully. Divergent views
increase the chances of reviewing all crucial aspects of an issue, building upon the views of
others, and making viable decisions.

The participation of all members is encouraged, with emphasis placed on finding the
best solution that everyone can agree on and support. If a group becomes stalemated over
two alternatives, a third alternative is often sought to incorporate the major desires of both
subgroups. In this way, the group avoids the kind of divisiveness that can occur with other
types of decision making, such as voting.

Consensus is difficult to achieve because it requires that members be flexible. They
must also understand that the thorough discussion of divergent points of view should

201 Understand That a Second Major Function of Task Groups Is Decision Making

lead to a synthesis of ideas, resulting in an innovative, creative, and high-quality decision.
Active participation, equally distributed power, and a substantial amount of time are nec-
essary to analyze divergent views and cooperatively synthesize ideas that will be agreeable
to everyone.

Because consensus resolves controversies and conflicts, it increases the group’s
ability to make high-quality decisions in the future. Other forms of decision making
do not resolve conflicts and controversies. When group members feel they have par-
ticipated in the decision and support it, they may contribute more of their resources to
implement the decision. Consensus is useful in making important, serious, and com-
plex decisions in which the success of the decision depends upon all members being
committed to it.

Simple Majority Vote
Most groups use a simple majority vote approach. Issues are discussed until they are clari-
fied and a vote is then taken.

There are several advantages to this type of decision making. Decisions are arrived at
much faster. Most decisions do not warrant the full support of all members. Even groups in
which members have little trust in one another can become operational by using a simple
majority vote approach. This approach will also work in groups in which communication
among members lacks openness and in groups in which some members are unwilling to
give up their favorite positions.

However, shortcomings of the simple majority vote approach are numerous. Minor-
ity opinions are not always safeguarded. Racial groups, women, certain ethnic groups,
lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBTQ) groups, and people with a disability have
received the brunt of many adverse decisions made by simple majority voting. Majority
voting frequently splits a group into winners and losers, and sometimes the number of
losers is nearly as great as the number of winners, who can represent as much as 49% of
the vote. These losers may feel their concerns are not receiving attention, refuse to support
group efforts, and work to subvert or overturn the decision. Obviously, if voting alienates
a minority, the future effectiveness of the group is diminished. There is a danger that a
majority rule may be interpreted by a minority as being an unfair means of control and
manipulation. Therefore, to maintain its effectiveness, groups that use majority voting
should create a climate in which members feel they have had their day in court and feel an
obligation to support the final group decision.

Two-Thirds or Three-Fourths Majority Vote
A high-percentage majority vote, such as two-thirds or three-fourths, is used primarily
for decisions of substantial consequence, such as enacting amendments to the U.S. Con-
stitution or changing the bylaws and constitution of an organization. A high-percentage
majority vote is also often used by governmental decision-making units to pass emergency
requests for special funds.

This type of vote is a compromise between the consensus and simple majority
approaches. A high-percentage majority vote takes more time than a simple majority
because more votes are needed, but less time than consensus because not everyone must
agree. A strong minority can block a decision, so a small majority cannot force its views
on that minority. However, a small minority may still feel controlled and manipulated by a
majority rule. A high-percentage majority vote will generally draw stronger support from
group members than a simple majority, but it will not generate as much support as consen-
sus. Psychologically, the losing side on a 76% to 24% vote under a three-fourths majority
system is more apt to go along with the winning side than if the winning side won by 51%
under a simple majority system.

For crucial decisions that require the support of practically all members, it is advisable
to reach as strong a majority agreement as possible. A decision not to grant a faculty member
tenure, for example, is less likely to be appealed if the vote in a department is 20 to 1 rather
than 11 to 10.

CHAPTER 6: Task Groups202

Delegated Decisions
Because large groups cannot carefully debate and make all daily decisions, many groups
delegate less important decisions to an expert, the group leader, or a subgroup. Subgroups
include executive, temporary, and standing committees. However, the types of decisions to
be delegated must be well defined to avoid potential conflicts and to limit the authority of
group members selected to make less important decisions. In many groups, conflicts and
disagreements arise when these limits are not clarified. It is common for group members
and leaders to differ on which decisions should be made by the leader and which should be
made by the group as a whole. When a leader’s decision-making authority is in doubt, the
group as a whole should deal with the question. Otherwise, the leader may be criticized for
overextending his or her authority.

Expert Authority can be delegated to the person in the group with the most expertise
in a particular area. The expert can review the issues and inform the group of the deci-
sion. A major problem is that it is often difficult to determine which member has the most
expertise. Personal popularity and power often interfere with the accurate selection of the
most expert member. Because the group is leaving the decision to a single member, there
is often little or no discussion of options. This may limit the number of viable options that
the expert considers. Finally, a decision made by one person may not receive the support of
other members to implement it.

Group Leader A group may allow the leader to make certain decisions. Before making
some of these decisions, however, the leader may call a meeting of the group, describe the
issues, and use the discussion to arrive at a decision. A chancellor or president of a univer-
sity often uses this approach by seeking the advice and suggestions of various subgroups.
The most time-efficient method is when the leader makes a decision without any group
discussion. This procedure works best for uncomplicated, less important issues. Although
efficient, it may not be effective. Because the group may not understand the issues, mem-
bers may disagree with the decision and withhold resources to implement it. If members
feel that the leader is overstepping his or her authority, they may retaliate by limiting that
authority or by replacing the leader. In addition, without input from the group, a leader is
less likely to be fully aware of all the viable courses of action. By involving the group, the
leader will hear a variety of options and give group members an opportunity to express
their views. Still, if the leader’s decision is unpopular, support for implementation will be
limited.

Subgroup Another approach to delegating decisions is to allow a subgroup, such as an
executive committee or a temporary committee, to make certain decisions. When a sub-
group makes a decision, it should consider the views of the larger group because unpopular
decisions are generally not supported. If the subgroup continually makes unpopular deci-
sions, the larger group can retaliate by reviewing the decisions, changing the membership
of the subgroup, reducing the subgroup’s decision-making powers, or disbanding the sub-
group. Subgroups are especially effective when a group has a large number of minor deci-
sions to make and limited time.

Multiple Voting
If an organization has a number of alternatives before it, a series of ballots may be taken
until one alternative receives the required number of winning votes. Multiple voting may
be done in a variety of ways. In selecting a presidential candidate, both the Republican and
Democratic conventions ballot until one candidate receives a majority. Another approach is
to keep narrowing the number of choices. For example, if there are 50 options, each mem-
ber may first vote for five options. The 10 options receiving the most votes are considered
in the second round, with members voting for three options. In the third round, the top
four options are considered, with members voting for two options each. In the fourth and
final round, the top two options are considered, and members vote for one option. With this

203 Understand That a Second Major Function of Task Groups Is Decision Making

type of multiple voting, it is essential that the members agree on the voting rules prior to
voting. Otherwise, those who want a choice that is not selected may charge, after reviewing
the results of the voting, that the group leader is arbitrarily and capriciously excluding their
favorite choices.

Averaging Individual Opinions
In an emergency, it may not be possible to assemble the members for a meeting. In this situ-
ation, the group leader may contact each individual member to obtain his or her vote. The
alternative chosen is the one receiving the most votes. Fewer than 50% of the votes could
pass the motion, as the other votes may be spread over a variety of options. This approach
may also be used for making decisions the leader does not believe are important enough
for a group meeting.

However, there are a number of disadvantages to this approach. Without group discus-
sion, many of the members may not be fully aware of all the issues, alternatives, or conse-
quences of the proposal. A poor decision may result because the votes of the least informed
members may cancel out the votes of the most knowledgeable. With little involvement,
members are unlikely to have much commitment toward implementing the decision.
There is also a danger that a subgroup opposed to the decision may feel it has been left
out and may work hard to overturn the decision or impede its implementation. Another
danger is that the person conducting the vote may influence the members to vote for his
or her position.

GROUP VERSUS INDIVIDUAL DECISION MAKING
In theory, the task of making a decision within a group should follow a rational problem-
solving process—identify the problem, generate proposed solutions, weigh the merits and
shortcomings of proposed solutions, and select the alternative with the fewest risks and
the greatest chance of success. In practice, however, subjective influences can impede this
process.

We have all heard our share of amusing yet halfway serious anecdotes about “run-
around meetings,” “inconclusive conclusions,” and “slower-than-snails committees.”
Although group-made decisions have the advantage of being based on a wider variety
of information and a greater variety of expertise, they are also susceptible to subjective
influences in the group. Without awareness of these subjective obstacles, groups will not
necessarily make better decisions than individuals.

Each group member brings not only his or her objective knowledge and expertise to
the decision-making process but also his or her subjective experience: unique attitudes,
feelings, biases, and vested interests. These will probably not be expressed at the start of
a meeting but will be triggered in the course of the ensuing discussion. As the decision-
making process continues, there is an increasing tendency for individuals to allow their
reactions to one another to interfere with objective thought.

Is group decision making inferior or superior to individual decision making? Individ-
ual decision making occurs when decisions are made without group interaction. A leader,
an expert, or a poll of individuals makes a decision that must be implemented by the group.
There is overwhelming evidence that group decision making is usually superior.33 This con-
clusion applies even when the individual decision is made by an expert.

There appear to be several reasons why group decision making is usually superior.34
Through group interaction, the knowledge, abilities, and resources of each member are
pooled. An individual acting alone often lacks the information, skills, or resources needed
to arrive at the best decision. Also, working in the presence of others motivates a person to
put forth more effort, be more careful, and increase the quality of his or her work. Having
more people working on a problem increases the probability that someone in the group
will suggest a viable solution. Through group interaction, the members can build on each
other’s ideas, develop a decision based on this building-block approach, and identify the
positive and negative consequences of each alternative. Because it is always easier to iden-
tify other people’s mistakes than our own, the problem areas in the favorite alternatives of

CHAPTER 6: Task Groups204

others can be identified and analyzed. In addition, different ways of looking at problems
and tasks are more likely to result when different individuals are contributing. Also, when
group members have participated in making a decision, they will be more likely to accept
and support it.

Although groups are better than the average individual, they may not be better than
an outstanding expert. Therefore, a group of novices is apt to perform worse than an
expert.

It should be noted, however, that subjective influences can substantially reduce the
quality of group decision making. Some group members may alter their actual opinions
or hold back relevant information because they do not want to displease others in the
group. One or several members may begin to contribute so much to the discussion or
state their opinions so forcefully that others begin to resign themselves to being inac-
tive. Arguments that are not pertinent to the issue at hand may take on major signifi-
cance. For some group members, winning such arguments becomes more important
than reaching a decision. Interpersonal attractions and repulsions among group mem-
bers also influence decision making; some members are inclined to support alterna-
tives of lower quality that are advocated by members they are attracted to, and they are
inclined to reject higher-quality alternatives advocated by group members whom they
dislike. Sometimes a combination of subjective influences results in the development
of groupthink.

LO 7 More Effectively Handle Groupthink

GROUPTHINK
Janis first identified groupthink as a result of a study done on groups of U.S. presidential
advisors.35 During this study, he found that powerful social pressures were often exerted
when a dissident began to voice objections to what otherwise appeared to be a group
consensus. Groupthink is a problem-solving process in which proposals are accepted
without a critical, careful review of the pros and cons of the alternatives and in which
considerable social pressure is brought to bear against those expressing opposing points
of view. Groupthink occurs partially because the norms of the group hold that it is more
important to bolster group morale than to evaluate all alternatives critically. Another
group norm that increases groupthink is that members should remain loyal by sticking
with the policies to which the group is already committed, even when those policies are
not working.

Janis has listed a number of factors that promote groupthink:

1. Members have an illusion of being invulnerable, which leads them to become overly
optimistic about their selected courses of action. This illusion also leads them to
take extraordinary risks and causes them to fail to respond to clear warnings of
danger.

2. Members have an unquestioning belief in the moral lightness of their group, which
leads them to ignore the ethical consequences of their decisions.

3. The group applies social pressures to display disapproval toward any member who
momentarily questions the basic policies of the group or who raises questions about a
policy alternative favored by the majority.

4. The group constructs rationalizations to discount warnings and other forms of
negative feedback that would, if taken seriously, lead the members to rethink basic
assumptions about policies that are not working.

5. Group members hold stereotyped views of the leaders of opposing groups. Opposing
group leaders are viewed either as so evil that it would be a mistake to try to negotiate
differences or as so stupid or so weak that they will not be able to prevent this group
from attaining its objectives.

205 More Effectively Handle Groupthink

EXERCISE 6.6 My Groupthink Experience

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assist you in understanding and applying the theoretical material on groupthink.

1. Describe a group experience that you had where you believed the group was going in the wrong direction and you failed to
express your thoughts or opinions.

2. Specify why you failed to express your thoughts or opinions.

3. Do you believe your reasons for not expressing your thoughts or opinions are consistent or inconsistent with groupthink?
Explain your views.

206 CHAPTER 6: Task Groups206

6. Members sometimes assume “mind guard” roles in which they attempt to protect
their leader and the group from negative information that might lead them to ques-
tion the morality and effectiveness of past decisions.

7. Members keep quiet about their misgivings and even minimize to themselves the
importance of these misgivings. Through self-censorship, members avoid deviating
from what appears to be group consensus.

8. The members believe practically everyone in the group fully agrees on the policies
and programs of the group.

Groupthink spawns a number of poor decision-making practices. The group limits
its discussion to those courses of action consistent with past decisions and policies;
as a result, more divergent strategies (some of which are viable) are not considered.
The group fails to reexamine a selected course of action, even when risks, drawbacks,
and unintended consequences become clear. The group makes little effort to get cost–
benefit information on possible strategies from appropriate experts. Members seek
primarily to obtain facts and listen to opinions that support their preferred policy and
tend to ignore facts and opinions that do not. The group fails to work out contingency
plans to cope with foreseeable setbacks, and it spends little time considering how the
chosen strategy might be sabotaged by political opponents or hampered by bureaucratic
red tape.

To prevent the development of groupthink, a group has to be “on guard” about its
dangers. Members must realize their selected courses of action may fail and be aware of the
ethical consequences of their decisions. The group should welcome the questioning of basic
policies by members and realistically assess the merits and shortcomings of the views being
expressed by opposing groups. Members should feel free to express their misgivings about
the basic policies and strategies of their group. The group should welcome the advance-
ment of new and novel strategies for resolving the problems that it is combating. Finally, the
group needs to consistently apply the problem-solving approach in assessing problems, in
generating alternatives, in evaluating these alternatives, and in selecting and implementing
strategies.

A concept similar to group think is hyperbonding.36 This occurs when group members
became overly connected with one another and may develop unhealthy norms, which are
accepted by the majority. The group members have a tendency to want to be overly social
instead of focusing on the task assigned to the group. There may be group pressure for all
members, including the leader, to conform to these norms. Some of these disruptive behav-
iors include excessive talking, bringing outside problems of group members into the group
setting, and side talk. It is important to recognize this dynamic and call attention to it when
it is occurring. The group may need to be reminded of the goals of the group and to refocus
on the group task.

Summary

The following summarizes the chapter’s content in terms of the learning objectives presented at the beginning of the chapter.

1. Identify a variety of task groups.
Task groups are used to generate new ideas, to make decisions, and to find solu-
tions to organizational problems. Task groups have three primary purposes:
(1) meeting clients’ needs, (2) meeting organizational needs, and (3) meeting
community needs.

2. Comprehend how to lead task groups.
Guidelines are presented for effectively leading task groups.

207 Group Exercises

3. Understand that one of the major functions of task groups is problem solving.
A key strategy that successful task groups generally use is the problem-solving
approach. The following barriers to effective problem solving are discussed: inad-
equate definitions of the problems, invalid hypotheses, poor communication, lack of
skills, lack of resources, and lack of motivation.

4. Utilize the brainstorming technique.
Brainstorming is described, which is a procedure designed to generate ideas in quan-
tity through the full participation of all group members.

5. More effectively resolve interpersonal conflicts.
Conflicts between members in groups are discussed. Conflicts are an inevitable
part of human interactions. Conflicts are only destructive when they are not ade-
quately resolved. The following conflict resolution strategies are presented: win-lose
approach, no-lose problem solving, role reversal, empathy, inquiry, I-messages, dis-
arming, stroking, mediation, and the Law of Requisite Variety.

6. Understand that a second major function of task groups is decision making.
The following approaches to decision making are presented: consensus, simple
majority vote, two-thirds or three-fourths majority vote, delegated decisions, multiple
voting, and averaging individual opinions. Although group decision making usually
leads to higher-quality decisions than those made by the average individual, group
decisions (especially when arrived at by a group of novices) may not be better than
decisions made by an outstanding expert.

7. More effectively handle groupthink.
Groupthink is a problem-solving process in which proposals are accepted without a
critical, careful review of the pros and cons of the alternatives and in which consider-
able social pressure is brought to bear against those opposing points of view. Group-
think leads to a number of poor decision-making practices.

Group Exercises

EXERCISE A: Suspended from High School
GOAL: To learn how to use the problem-solving approach in a group.

Step 1. The group leader describes the stages of the problem-solving approach:

1. Identify and define the problem.
2. Assess the size and causes of the problem.
3. Develop alternative strategies or plans for solving it.
4. Assess the merits and shortcomings of these alternative strategies.
5. Select and implement the most desirable strategy or strategies.
6. Evaluate the success of the strategy or strategies used.

Step 2. The class divides into subgroups of four or five students each. Each subgroup is to apply
the problem-solving approach to the following situation:

Five students have been suspended for a 4-day period for drinking alcoholic beverages at
their high school, which is located in a small city of 5,400. It has been the policy of the school
board to suspend any student caught drinking at school. In the past 5 months six students have
been suspended. The police department is unhappy with the suspensions because when the stu-
dents are suspended, they usually loiter on the city streets during school hours. The school social
worker contacted the parents of the five suspended students, and only one couple indicated an

CHAPTER 6: Task Groups208

interest in receiving counseling for their daughter. The other parents stated they were not suf-
ficiently concerned to talk further about the suspensions.

The task of each subgroup is to arrive at answers (and reasons for their answers) to each of
the following five questions:

1. What do you see as the most serious problem to deal with?
2. What do you believe are the causes of this problem?
3. What possible strategies could combat this problem?
4. What do you see as the merits and shortcomings of each of these strategies?
5. Which of these strategies would you select to combat the problem you have identified?

Step 3. Each subgroup shares its answers and reasoning with the class. After all of the subgroups
have presented their answers, the class discusses why different problems and strategies were
defined and selected by the subgroups.

EXERCISE B: Brainstorming
GOAL: To show how to use brainstorming.

Step 1. The leader describes the purpose of brainstorming and its ground rules, as explained in
this chapter.

Step 2. The leader gives the class an issue or problem to brainstorm. If the class is very large,
subgroups of 10 to 15 students may be formed. The issue or problem should be one that the class
has some awareness of and background on. One possible topic: “What do you see as the major
problem (without naming any person) in our social work program?”

Step 3. The most important problem should be singled out after the brainstorming is completed.
For example, each class member could list his or her choices for the five most serious problems on
a note card. A tally could then be made, and the problem receiving the most votes would then be
declared the most serious problem.

Step 4. After the most serious problem is determined, a second brainstorming exercise is con-
ducted to generate a list of strategies to resolve it. Following this brainstorming, the most viable
strategies should be identified.

Step 5. A discussion elicits the view of the class as to the strengths and shortcomings of brain-
storming.

EXERCISE C: Busing to Achieve Racial Integration
GOAL: To observe and negotiate intergroup conflict.

Step 1. The group leader provides the following background information:

All of you live in a middle-class suburb of Middletown, which has had no racial problems.
Your suburb is located next to the big city of Skyscraper. A recent study by the federal govern-
ment has found that four public schools in the inner city of Skyscraper are racially segregated, as
98% of the students are African American. This inner-city school district is spending only half as
much money per child on education as is your suburb of Middletown. The dropout rate in these
inner-city schools is 55% compared to 10% in Middletown. Only 15% of the graduates from the
inner-city schools in Skyscraper go on to college, whereas 65% of the graduates from Middle-
town go on to college. The federal government has ruled that the school districts in Middletown
and Skyscraper must become racially integrated through busing between the systems. Three
groups—concerned parents, civil rights activists, and school staff—have been asked by the Mid-
dletown School Board to arrive at some recommendations to present to the school board on how
to integrate the school districts. The school board of Middletown will act on these recommen-
dations and then propose them to the Skyscraper School Board as a way of implementing the

209 Group Exercises

federal government’s declaration that the school districts in the two communities must become
racially integrated.

Step 2. The class is randomly divided into the three groups. Each group receives a handout that
describes the group’s views and tasks. (No group should be informed of the views of the other two
groups.) The views and tasks are further described in the following material:

Concerned parents: You want what is best for your child. You do not want your child to
associate with children from inner-city areas. You are vehemently opposed to a busing
system that would send your children to an inner-city school. You are less opposed
to students being bused from Skyscraper to Middletown, but you want to keep the
number of children who are bused to Middletown as small as possible. You are also
concerned that your taxes will increase because of busing. Your group tasks are (1)
to develop two to four proposals for possible presentation to the Middletown School
Board that will get the federal government off your back while minimizing any pos-
sible changes in your child’s education and (2) to select a person who will represent
your group in negotiations with the other two groups in arriving at a set of proposals
to present to the school board.

School staff: Your group is composed of teachers, school administrators, and school social
workers. Value-wise, you are in favor of racial integration. You are also in favor of the
neighborhood school concept in which the school is a center that serves students and
parents in the neighborhood. Therefore, you are unsure whether to support school
busing. Some of your staff members fear that juvenile crime, vandalism, and racial
clashes will increase if busing occurs. Your tasks are (1) to develop two to four pro-
posals for possible presentation to the Middletown School Board that will creatively
further racial integration while interfering very little with the neighborhood school
concept in Middletown and (2) to select a person who will represent your group in
negotiations with the other two groups in arriving at a set of proposals to present to
the school board.

Civil rights activists: Your group is delighted that the federal government has declared that
the school districts in Skyscraper and Middletown must become racially integrated.
You believe such integration will be highly valuable in reducing racial prejudice and
racial discrimination in the future. You are ambivalent about using school busing,
but you are unaware of other strategies to integrate schools. Your group is composed
of a number of community leaders, generally with a liberal orientation. Members of
your group include clergy, social workers, directors of social service agencies, and
concerned business leaders. You fear that members of the other two groups may seek
to minimize efforts to integrate the school systems. Your tasks are (1) to develop two
to four proposals that will fully integrate the school systems and (2) to select a person
who will represent your group in negotiations with the other two groups in arriving at
a set of proposals to present to the school board.

Step 3. After each group has prepared a set of proposals, the negotiators for the three groups
meet to arrive at a consistent set of proposals to present to the Middletown School Board. The
other class members observe the negotiations.

Step 4. The group leader defines the win-lose and problem-solving strategies and describes the
following techniques that are useful in resolving conflicts: role reversal, stroking, disarming, em-
pathy, I-messages, and inquiry. The class then discusses the following five questions:

1. Did the negotiators arrive at a consistent set of proposals? Why or why not?
2. Did the negotiators use primarily a win-lose or a problem-solving strategy?
3. Did any of the negotiators use the techniques of role reversal, stroking, empathy,

I-messages, disarming, or inquiry?
4. How creative were the proposals arrived at by the three groups and the three

negotiators?
5. What did the students learn from this exercise?

CHAPTER 6: Task Groups210

EXERCISE D: Creative Thinking
GOAL: To gain experience in coming up with answers that require creative thinking.

Note: In doing these exercises on creativity, the group leader is encouraged to add or substitute
exercises of his or her own.

Step 1. The group leader explains that questions will be asked that require innovative thinking.
The leader may want to create a competition and a game-like atmosphere by dividing the class
into two or more subgroups and recording a tally mark on the blackboard when a subgroup
shouts out the correct response. (The correct answers are given in Appendix 2.)

1. In counting from 0 to 100, how many 9’s do you come across?
2. Two women are playing checkers. They play five games, and each woman wins the same

number of games. How come?
3. You are told to take five pills, one every half-hour. How many hours will they last?
4. A yacht in the harbor has a 10-foot ladder hanging over the side. If the tide rises 2 feet an

hour, how many hours will it take for the water to reach the top of the ladder?
5. Do they have a Fourth of July in England?
6. Why can’t someone living in Washington, DC, be buried west of the Mississippi River?
7. How many outs are there in a baseball inning?
8. A man builds a rectangular house with all four exposures facing south. Then he goes out-

side and kills a bear. What color is the bear? Where is the house located? (Award a correct
response for each answer.)

9. If it takes 3 minutes to boil an egg, how long will it take to boil seven eggs?
10. Assume two cars start to travel toward each other from a distance of 2,000 miles. If car A

travels at a rate of 150 mph and car B at 100 mph, how far will each car be from its origin
when they meet?

11. A farmer had 3 two-thirds-size haystacks in one field and 6 three-fifths-size haystacks in
another field. He put them all together. How many did he have then?

12. “Jill is my niece,” said Paul to his sister Karen. “She is not my niece,” said Karen,”
Explain this.

13. If you had 12 dollars and spent all but 4 dollars, how much would you have left?

EXERCISE E: The Manhattan Glass
GOAL: To interact in small groups to solve problems that require creativity.

Step 1. The class divides into subgroups of three students each and receives the necessary
materials (such as matches and handouts) for solving the problems. After one subgroup com-
pletes the problem, it is declared a winner and all subgroups receive another problem. A
tally of which subgroup arrives at the correct answer first for each problem is kept on the
blackboard.

Task 1. These 12 matches are positioned to form one large square and four small squares. By
changing the position of exactly three matches, reduce the number of squares to three small
squares.

211 Group Exercises

Task 2. These four full-sized matches form a Manhattan glass. The half-match is a cherry. By mov-
ing just two matches, make another Manhattan glass of the same shape and size with the cherry
on the outside. Do not move the cherry.

Task 3. Connect all nine dots with only four straight lines without lifting your pencil from the
paper.

Task 4. By drawing only two straight lines, divide this shape into four equal parts with two dots
in each part.

Task 5. Place the numbers 1 through 11 in the 11 circles shown so that every 3 numbers in a
straight line add up to 18.

EXERCISE F: Brainteasers
GOAL: To creatively arrive at answers to 25 brainteasers.

Step 1. The group leader gives the following 25 brainteasers to each student. The class divides
into subgroups of about five people. The groups have 20 minutes to arrive at answers. The leader
starts by indicating that the first answer is “sandbox” and instructs each subgroup to write its
answers on a sheet of paper.

Step 2. The subgroups exchange papers for grading. The leader reads the right answers and then
asks each subgroup how many correct answers it produced.

CHAPTER 6: Task Groups212

EXERCISE G: Resolving Conflicts
GOAL: To practice using techniques to resolve conflicts in real-life situations.

Step 1. The leader describes each of the following techniques that are useful in resolving con-
flicts: role reversal, stroking, no-lose problem solving, disarming, empathy, I-messages, inquiry,
and the Law of Requisite Variety. The students are then instructed to try to use one or more of
these techniques to resolve interpersonal conflicts that arise in their daily lives during the next
seven days. (To facilitate remembering details of their efforts to use these techniques in conflict
situations, students are instructed to record the details of the incidents in a journal.)

Step 2. After a week or so, the leader asks in class for volunteers to (1) describe which techniques
they used, (2) briefly summarize the details of the conflict they encountered, and (3) reveal the ex-
tent to which the techniques were useful in resolving the conflict. (If no one volunteers, the leader
should cite one or two examples of how he or she used these techniques to resolve interpersonal
conflicts in the recent past. Such sharing by the leader may lead others to share their experiences.)

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213 Group Exercises

EXERCISE H: Funding Social Programs Involves Hard Choices
GOAL: To analyze how decisions are made, to understand that most decisions are based on
values and assumptions, and to realize that setting budgets for social programs involves hard
choices because of scarce resources.

Step 1. The group leader states that funding sources (such as the federal, state, and local
governments or United Way) have to make difficult choices about how much money to al-
locate to diverse social programs. Financial resources to fund all social programs are simply
unavailable, and some people suffer greatly because they do not receive the needed services
and funds.

Step 2. The group divides into subgroups of five or six students. A person from each subgroup
volunteers to be an observer for that group. The observer’s role is to record information during the
exercise related to the following four questions:

1. Which decision-making procedures were used by the group? Possible procedures include
consensus, simple majority voting, two-thirds or three-fourths majority voting, and mul-
tiple voting. (These procedures should be briefly defined for the observers; the definitions
may be given on a handout.)

2. What values and assumptions were expressed as reasons for the decision the subgroup
made?

3. Which members appeared to have the most influence in arriving at a decision?
4. What did the influential members say or do to influence the subgroup?

After the exercise is over, the observers will be asked to share this information with the class.
The observers should not vote or participate in the discussion of the subgroup.

Step 3. Each subgroup is informed that it is the funding source for a local community and that
it has $10 million to allocate for the following social programs, which need a total of $15 mil-
lion. Each subgroup has the task of deciding how much money to allocate to each agency. No
subgroup can go over the $10 million limit. (The group leader should distribute the following
information on a handout.)

The Center for Developmental Disabilities needs $1.5 million to care for individuals who
have severe cognitive disabilities. All of these individuals are so intellectually affected
that they are unable to walk. It costs $220,000 a year to care for each individual. If the
center does not receive its requested funds, there is a danger that some of these clients
may not receive the necessary medical care and may die.

The Anti-Poverty Agency needs $3.5 million to maintain families at an income level of only
80% of that defined as the poverty line. It costs $18,500 per year to maintain a family
of three (generally a single parent with two children). If the agency does not receive
its requested funds, there is a danger that many of these families will go hungry, have
inadequate shelter, and lack essential clothing for winter.

Protective Services needs $1 million to combat abuse, neglect, and incest. If the agency
does not receive all of its needed funds, there is the danger that a number of children
will continue to be exposed to abuse, neglect, or incest, which could severely affect
them for the rest of their lives.

The Mental Health Center needs $2.5 million to help clients with severe emotional problems,
some of whom are so depressed they are suicidal. If the center does not receive all of its
needed funds, inadequate services will be provided to clients, and there is a danger that
the problems of many clients will intensify. A few may even take their own lives.

The Alcohol and Drug Abuse Treatment Center needs $2 million to help chemically depen-
dent clients and their families. If the center does not receive all of its needed funds,
inadequate services will mean the problems experienced by the clients and their
families are apt to intensify. Because alcohol and drug abuse are contributing factors
to many other problems (such as poverty, mental illness, and family violence), there is
a danger these problems will also intensify.

CHAPTER 6: Task Groups214

The Shelter for Battered Women, which is located in a house in a residential area, is
requesting $500,000. If funds are cut back, the shelter staff assert they will have to
turn away some of the battered women and their children who need shelter and other
services.

Group Homes for Youths runs four group homes—two for young women and two for
young men. It needs $500,000. If needed funds are cut back, this agency will have to
reduce the number of youths it is serving. Some will be transferred to more expensive
residential treatment programs, some returned to unhealthy home environments, and
some will simply run away.

The Red Cross needs $1 million for its blood bank and for disaster relief. If funds are
cut back, there is a danger there will be an insufficient supply of blood available for
transfusions, and many of the families who are hit by disasters (such as tornadoes and
floods) will not be served.

The Rehabilitation Center provides work training and sheltered work to clients with a vari-
ety of physical or mental disabilities. It needs $2 million, or it will be forced to turn
away clients. If clients are turned away, they will lose hope of becoming productive
and perhaps self-supporting and will end up requesting assistance from the Mental
Health Center and the Anti-Poverty Agency.

Equal Rights is an agency providing a wide range of services to racial minorities in the
area—work training, job placement, and housing location. It also investigates and
takes legal action against employers and landlords charged with racial discrimination.
The agency needs $500,000. If funds are cut back, there is a danger that discrimina-
tion against racial minorities will increase.

Step 4. Each subgroup shares with the class its decisions for allocating funds and the reasons
behind them. (The cuts that are made can be summarized on the blackboard by having the lead-
er list the names of the agencies and then having a representative from each subgroup list the
amount of money that was cut—totaling $5 million—from the requested allocations.) Ask the
subgroup members to share their feelings about the exercise. After each subgroup finishes, the
observer for that subgroup should inform the class of the answers to the four questions listed in
Step 2. The leader should ask if anyone noted that the Shelter for Battered Women, which has one
house, was requesting the same amount of money as Group Homes for Adolescent Youth, which
runs four group homes.

EXERCISE I: Consensus
GOAL: To learn about the complexities of arriving at a consensus on an issue when people hold
strongly divergent views.

Step 1. The group leader defines a consensus and describes the group atmosphere necessary to
reach a consensus.

Step 2. The class is given a controversial issue to discuss and bring to a consensus. For example,
the class may be asked whether it supports physician-assisted suicide for persons who are termi-
nally ill who are expected to live less than six months.

Step 3. After the exercise is over, the students discuss their feelings about the pressure to arrive
at a consensus in the face of strongly divergent views and why the class was, or was not, able to
arrive at a consensus.

EXERCISE J: Subjective Influences on Merit Raises
GOAL: To demonstrate that group decisions are often substantially affected by subjective
influences.

Step 1. Six students volunteer to play the roles of social work faculty members on a merit com-
mittee at a university. The department has 18 faculty members, and six of these members have

215 Group Exercises

applied for “superior” merit increases. The committee has a total of $12,000, all of which must be
distributed to these six applicants. The three areas of recognizing merit increases are teaching
excellence, research and publishing, and services to the campus and the community.

The decision on how much money to distribute to each applicant rests entirely with this
committee. The committee may recommend that all, or nearly all, of the $12,000 be distributed
to one or two applicants, with the others receiving little or none, or the committee may distribute
the money fairly evenly among the applicants. The committee is provided with the information in
Table 6.1 about the meritorious activities of the applicants. (This information may be displayed on
the chalkboard or on individual sheets distributed to the class.).

Step 2. The leader hands out an individual “additional information card” to each role-player.
Each card has a one-sentence description of one of the applicants. The other role-players are
not allowed to see the information on the card. (These cards should be prepared in advance.)
Each card provides information likely to foster a strong personal reaction toward the respective
faculty member. The role-players are told they are free to bring up the information on their cards
during the role-playing or to disregard the information. The leader is free to be creative in writing
the additional information on the cards. The following are some appropriate examples:

“Garcia is planning to retire next year, so a significant merit increase would not only
recognize his years of public service to the community, but would also substantially
increase the pension he will receive after retirement because monthly payments from
the pension plan are based on a teacher’s last three earning years.”

“Pagel, a single mother with three young children, is working on her doctorate
and is by far the lowest-paid member of the department; in fact, she’s barely able to
financially provide for her family.”

“Riesen is married but is also secretly dating one of the female students in the
social work program; he refuses to advise students or to serve on departmental
committees.”

TABLE 6.1

Faculty Member Summary and Meritorious Activities Teacher Rating1

Juan Garcia Served on university budget committee. Is president
of the board of directors of the United Way in the
community.

4.1

Karen Pagel Attended two professional conferences. Is the faculty
advisor to the Student Social Work Club.

4.2

Dale Riesen Published a social work textbook and two articles in
professional journals.

3.5

Jean Duvey Is chair of the department and did the bulk of the
work needed to achieve reaccreditation of the
social work program by the Council on Social Work
Education.

4.0

Kevin Aaron Wrote and received a grant on “Long Instance Social
Work Education” that brought $150,000 to the
program for using communication technology to
provide social work education classes to other com-
munities in the state.

3.9

Joyce Jackson Presented three papers on child abuse intervention
at national conferences.

4.3

1 Based on student course evaluations. (5 = highest, 1 = lowest)

CHAPTER 6: Task Groups216

“Duvey works many more hours for the department than any other faculty
member, but much of the work that she does (paperwork and advising of prospective
students) goes unnoticed by the other faculty members.”

“Aaron is addicted to alcohol (he was recently involved in a drunk-driving acci-
dent and left the scene of the accident in which someone was injured); he refuses to
acknowledge his alcohol abuse and has hidden the drunk-driving incident from the
other social work faculty members and the university administration.”

“Jackson has been extremely helpful to you and the other young instructors in
the department, but her mentoring of young faculty members has not been recog-
nized financially by the campus.”

Step 3. The role-players discuss the applicants for merit awards. The role-players are given an
opportunity to share their additional information about one faculty member. Also, if they desire,
they can fabricate and share additional information (which may be positive or negative in nature)
about the faculty member listed on their cards. The role-players then end up making decisions
about how much money to assign to each of the six applicants.

Step 4. The role-players and the class then process the decisions that were arrived at by discuss-
ing the following kinds of questions:

1. Did the additional information—and/or any other subjective information that was fabri-
cated—play an important role in determining the amount of the merit raises assigned to
the six applicants?

2. Did the role-players reveal the additional information on their cards in the group discus-
sions? Why or why not?

3. What were the key values (such as quality teaching or family values) that contributed to the
decisions that were made?

4. In making group decisions such as this one which tends to have greater weight—objective
information or subjective information?

Competency Notes

EP 1c Demonstrate professional demeanor in behavior; appearance; and oral, written, and electronic
communication.

EP 6a Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and
other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and constituencies

The content and exercises in this chapter are designed to enhance the capacities of students to
participate in and lead task groups.

Key Terms and Concepts

Assumptions
Coalitions
Conflict

Creativity
Delegate Councils

No-Lose Problem-Solving
Approach

Team Building

217

Working with Diverse
Groups

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Social work practice, whether it
includes working with individuals
or groups, must take into
account the enormous diversity
of clients and consumers of social
services. This chapter will help
prepare students to:

LO 1
Define key terms involving
diversity.

LO 2
Understand stereotyping
and multiculturalism.

LO 3
Identify stereotypes and
preconceptions.

LO 4
Recognize the importance of
social workers having in-depth
knowledge of the diverse
groups they work with.

LO 5
Work more effectively with
the LGBTIQQ population in
groups.

LO 6
Apply the concepts of
ethnic-sensitive practice,
empowerment, and the
strengths perspective.

LO 7
Engage in culturally
competent practice.

LO 8
Understand the RAP
framework for leading
multiracial groups.

LO 9
Apply principles of feminist
intervention in social work
practice.

The profession of social work has had a long tradition of seeking to protect the rights of vulnerable populations and advocating equal opportunities for their members. For
example, the Code of Ethics of the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) states:

Social workers should act to prevent and eliminate domination, exploitation, and discrimi-
nation against any person, group, or class on the basis of race, ethnicity, national origin,
color, age, religion, sex, sexual orientation, marital status, political belief, mental or physical
disability, or any other preference, personal characteristic, or status.1

The Code also states:

Social workers should act to expand choice and opportunity for all persons, with special
regard for vulnerable, disadvantaged, oppressed, and exploited persons and groups.

Social workers should promote conditions that encourage respect for the diversity of cul-
tures and social diversity within the United States and globally.2

LO 1 Define Key Terms Involving Diversity

DEFINITIONS OF KEY TERMS
Unfortunately, there has been a long history of prejudice, discrimination, and
oppression against vulnerable populations in our culture. Some definitions
may be useful.

Prejudice means prejudging, making a judgment in advance of due
examination. Prejudice is a combination of stereotyped beliefs and negative
attitudes, so that prejudiced individuals think about members of a minority
group in a predetermined, usually negative, categorical way.

Discrimination involves taking action against people because they belong
to a category. Discriminatory behavior often derives from prejudiced attitudes.

Merton, however, notes that prejudice and discrimination can occur
independently of each other. Merton describes four different “types” of people:

1. The unprejudiced nondiscriminator, in both belief and practice, upholds
American ideals of freedom and equality. This person is not prejudiced
against other groups and, on principle, will not discriminate against them.

2. The unprejudiced discriminator is not personally prejudiced but may
sometimes, reluctantly, discriminate against other groups because it
seems socially or financially convenient to do so.

3. The prejudiced nondiscriminator feels hostile to other groups but recog-
nizes that law and social pressures are opposed to overt discrimination.
This person does not translate prejudice into action.

EP 2a
EP 2b
EP 2c
EP 3a
EP 3b

CHAPTER 7: Working with Diverse Groups218

An example of an unprejudiced discriminator is the owner of a condominium com-
plex in an all-white, middle-class suburb who refuses to sell a condominium to an African
American family because he fears that doing so will reduce the value of the remaining units.
An example of a prejudiced nondiscriminator is a personnel director of a fire department
who believes Hispanics are unreliable and poor firefighters yet complies with affirmative
action efforts to hire and train Hispanic firefighters.

It should be noted that it is difficult to keep personal prejudices from eventually lead-
ing to some form of discrimination. Strong laws and firm informal social norms are neces-
sary to break the causal relationship between prejudice and discrimination.

Two types of discrimination exist—de jure and de facto. De jure discrimination is
legal discrimination. The so-called Jim Crow laws in the South in the last century gave
force of law to many discriminatory practices against blacks, including denial of the right
to trial, prohibition against voting, and prohibition against interracial marriage. Today, in
the United States, there is practically no de jure discrimination, as these laws have been
declared unconstitutional and have been removed.

De facto discrimination refers to discrimination that actually exists, whether legal or
not. Housing patterns in many cities are an example of de facto discrimination. Wealthy
whites tend to live in affluent suburbs, nonwhites in inner-city areas. The effects of such
segregation tend to carry over to other arenas—for example, clear discrepancies in the qual-
ity of educational systems between affluent suburbs and inner-city areas.

Oppression is the unjust or cruel exercise of authority or power. Members of vulner-
able populations in our society are frequently victimized by oppression from segments of
the white power structure. Oppression and discrimination are closely related, as all acts of
oppression are also acts of discrimination.

Stereotypes are fixed mental images of a group that are applied to all its members.
Stereotyping is the attribution of a fixed and usually inaccurate and unfavorable conception
to a category of people.

Social workers must also be aware of micro-aggressions in groups. Micro-aggressions
are subtle, offensive attacks on a minority individual or group. A Hispanic female may be
told she has “good English” although she was born and raised in the United States. An older
male could be told he “probably can’t remember anything anyways,” referencing memory
loss that can come with age. Micro-aggressions are damaging as they lead group members,
especially minorities, to not feel validated or safe in a group.

A minority group is a group that has a subordinate status and is subjected to dis-
crimination. It is not size that is critical in defining a group as a minority, but rather lack
of power. Women comprise the majority in our society but are a minority according to this
definition.

There are also other important terms to be aware of when working with diverse groups.
Racism is when an individual or group members are stereotyped or face discrimina-

tion based on their ethnic or cultural backgrounds. An example would be African American
group members not talking to a fair-skinned African American/Hispanic biracial female in
a group due to not believing she should identify as an African American.

Unconscious racism occurs when individuals are not aware of their own unconscious
racist attitudes. It is important for group leaders to work hard to become aware of all of their
biases and prejudices and the biases and prejudices of group members in order to create a
safe environment for all group members.

Color blindness is a form of racism that occurs when there is total disregard for
another person’s race, ethnicity, or age, believing that these factors do not matter. Group
leaders need to be able to recognize differences in race, ethnicity, and gender to ensure all
group members’ individual needs are addressed and to validate differences that each indi-
vidual brings to the group experience.

Some individuals take racism to a higher level and engage in “othering” in which they
believe all other ethnic groups are “not like us” and are outside the “norm” of their identified

4. The prejudiced discriminator does not believe in the values of freedom and equality
and consistently discriminates against other groups in both word and deed.3

219 Define Key Terms Involving Diversity

EXERCISE 7.1 Some of My Stereotypes

GOAL: This exercise is designed to identify some of your personal stereotypes that you need to be aware of in order to develop an
objective approach to social work practice with diverse groups.

1. Assume that you are single. Place an X by the description of anyone you would be hesitant to marry.

Person who is bisexual
Person who is blind
Person who is deaf
Person who has cerebral palsy
Person who is an elder
Person who has genital herpes
Person who has a mild cognitive disability
Person who has been hospitalized for an emotional problem
A Native American
A Puerto Rican
An Italian
A German
A Yugoslav
A Norwegian
A Samoan
An Arab
An Israeli
A Chinese
A Russian
An American
A Cuban
A French person
A Mexican
A white Protestant
A Roman Catholic
A Jew
A Muslim
An African American
A Japanese
A Filipino
An Eskimo
A Brazilian
A Hungarian
A Vietnamese
A Pakistani
A Korean
A white American

2. As specifically as possible, state (next to each group that you checked) the reasons for the groups you checked.

CHAPTER 7: Working with Diverse Groups220

race. This can lead to a “they are not like us therefore they are not with us” mentality. Other-
ing can be disruptive in a group and needs to be addressed.

Another concept, white privilege, includes benefits, advantages, or access to power
typically bestowed on those identified as white. Some of these privileges include not ever
having to face job discrimination, reading books in which their race is the predominant
race talked about, or being afforded financial loans at a lower interest rate. It is impor-
tant for white social workers to recognize the concept of white privilege and become more
self-aware in order to provide culturally competent services. Social workers should aim to
engage in cultural humility (see content later) in which they recognize their own privileges
and biases while also being committed to learning about another individual’s experiences.

Lastly, ageism is when an individual or group of people face racism, stereotypes, and
discrimination based on their age. An example is an older aged adult not being invited to
attend a group due to a concern that the older aged adult will not be able to relate to younger
group members. Group leaders need to find opportunities for all age groups to benefit from
group experiences and aim to find similarities among group members when appropriate.

Diverse groups are groups with characteristics that are distinct from the dominant
group in a society. Many diverse groups in our society are also vulnerable populations.

The Council on Social Work Education (2015) states social work educational programs
need to “provide a learning environment in which respect for all persons and understanding
of diversity and difference are practiced.”4

In Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards the Council on Social work Educa-
tion (2015) states that social work educational programs are mandated to have a commit-
ment to diversity, “including but not limited to age, class, color, culture, disability and ability,
ethnicity, gender, gender identity and expression, immigration status, marital status, politi-
cal ideology, race, religion/spirituality, sex, sexual orientation, and tribal sovereign status.”5

Tribal sovereignty refers to the right of Native American tribes to govern themselves,
define their own membership, manage tribal property, and regulate tribal business and
domestic relations. It further recognizes the existence of a government-to-government rela-
tionship between such tribes and the federal government. There are more than 500 feder-
ally recognized Native American tribes in the United States.

Social justice is an ideal condition in which all members of a society have the same
basic rights, protection, opportunities, obligations, and social benefits.6 Economic justice is
also an ideal condition in which all members of a society have the same opportunities for
attaining material goods, income, and wealth.

In working with diverse groups, a social worker needs (1) to be aware of personal
stereotypes and preconceptions about diverse groups, (2) to have knowledge about the
diverse groups that he or she is working with and the special needs of those groups, and
(3) to be aware of which intervention techniques are apt to be effective with those groups
and which are not.

3. Do you hold stereotypes about the individuals you checked?

221 Understand Stereotyping and Multiculturalism

LO 2 Understand Stereotyping and Multiculturalism

STEREOTYPING AND MULTICULTURALISM: A PERSPECTIVE
As with most other social work texts, this text presents descriptive information on many of the
groups identified in the Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS). The client
groups identified in EPAS include, but are not limited to, “age, class, color, culture, disability
and ability, ethnicity, gender, gender identity and expression, immigration status, marital status,
political ideology, race, religion/spirituality, sex, sexual orientation, and tribal sovereign status.”7

Traditionally, such descriptive information has been thought to increase social work-
ers’ capacities to be culturally competent with these groups. However, some social work
authorities are now raising questions as to whether presenting descriptive information
about specific groups leads to stereotypes and prejudices against these groups.8 For example,
if we describe women as being more emotional than men and men as being more rational
than women, such a perception and categorization can steer expectations for an individual
or a group. Such perceptions and categorizations are often inaccurate when applied to an
individual member of a group, as well as to the group as a whole.

Another example may help further clarify this perspective. There is a perception
that Asian Americans are a “model minority,” as they are viewed as an “over-achieving,
supersuccessful ethnic group without significant problems.”9 However, perceiving Asian
Americans as overachieving and supersuccessful raises a number of questions that may
negatively affect those labeled as Asian Americans, such as: Will such a perception lead
Asian American children to feel undue pressure to be supersuccessful? Will it lead those
Asian Americans who are not supersuccessful to view themselves as “failures”? Will social
service agencies and policy makers tend to ignore developing human service programs for
Asian Americans, as they are already perceived to be “supersuccessful”? Will providers of
services (such as dentists, car dealers, plumbers, electricians) tend to charge Asian Ameri-
cans more, as they are apt to be perceived to be “wealthy”?

It should be noted that the stereotyping of Asian Americans as being overachieving and
supersuccessful misrepresents the diverse experiences of Asian Americans by glossing over
huge differences within a group of people who come from more than two dozen countries, most
of which have their own distinct language and culture. In this regard, Ziauddlin Sardar notes:

White people . . . look at me and exclaim: “Surely, you’re Asian.” However, there is no such
thing as an Asian. Asia is not a race or identity: it is a continent. Even in Asia, where more
than half of the world’s population lives, no one calls him or herself “Asian.” . . . In the U.S.,
the Asian label is attached to Koreans, Filipinos, and Chinese. In Britain, we do not use the
term Asian to describe our substantial communities of Turks, Iranians, or Indonesians,
even though these countries are in Asia.10

Presenting descriptive information about a group may also lead to negative stereotyp-
ing and then to overt discrimination. For example, there is descriptive information that
indicates African Americans tend to have higher rates (compared to whites) of poverty,
homelessness, births outside of marriage, school dropouts, criminal arrests, and criminal
convictions.11 Does such information lead to the expectation by non–African Americans
that African American individuals they meet are apt to “fit” such descriptive information?
For example, the poverty rate for African Americans is about 27%, whereas for whites it is
10%.12 Will this information lead a non–African American to expect that African American
individuals they encounter are apt to be “poor”? What may be ignored by the non–African
American is that most African Americans (73%) are not living in poverty.

This text will continue to use the traditional approach of presenting descriptive informa-
tion about the diverse categories identified in the EPAS for two reasons. First, most social work
educators deduce that the EPAS was written with the expectation that descriptive information
will be presented in the social work curriculum on these categories. Second, the social work
authorities who are concerned about descriptive information being presented have not yet
arrived at a new definition of diversity that enables us to develop a knowledge base of infor-
mation about the diverse groups identified in the EPAS who have been and still are victimized

CHAPTER 7: Working with Diverse Groups222

by discrimination. This author urges readers to be aware of the dangers of stereotypes being
generated by descriptive information about the diverse groups identified in this text.

An additional caveat about diversity will be mentioned. Everyone has multicultural
diversity. We differ from one another in terms of such variables as age, economic status,
education, family type, gender, personality type, ethnicity, religion, geographic origin,
sexual orientation, communication types, attire, language, political views, physical abilities,
lifestyle, and so forth. Therefore, when we meet someone who, for example, is Japanese
American, it is essential to recognize that there are many other facets of that individual in
addition to just his or her ethnicity.

The EPAS (CSWE 2015) states,

“The dimensions of diversity are understood as the intersectionality of multiple factors
including but not limited to age, class, color, culture, disability and ability, ethnicity, gender,
gender identity and expression, immigration status, marital status, political ideology, race,
religion/spirituality, sex, sexual orientation, and tribal sovereign status.”13

Intersectionality is the consideration of the simultaneous operation and/or effects of
two or more categories of inequality.14

LO 3 Identify Stereotypes and Preconceptions

YOUR STEREOTYPES AND PRECONCEPTIONS
Our society has had a long history of discriminating against vulnerable populations. The
extent of the discrimination has changed with time for some diverse groups. Italian Ameri-
cans and Chinese Americans, for example, were victimized by discrimination to a greater
extent during the last century than now.

All of us have some prejudices against vulnerable populations because we were social-
ized where prejudices abound. Abraham Lincoln is recognized as the person who was most
responsible in our society for ending slavery. But Lincoln had prejudices against African
Americans, as illustrated in the following statement:

I will say, then, that I am not, nor ever have been, in favor of bringing about in any way the
social and political equality of the white and black races; that I am not, nor ever have been,
in favor of making voters or jurors of Negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor
to intermarry with White people . . . and in as much as they cannot so live, while they do
remain together there must be the position of superior and inferior, and I as much as any
other man am in favor of having the superior position assigned to the White race.15

As social workers, it is critically important for each of us to recognize our personal
prejudices and stereotypes against vulnerable populations. Social workers have taken a pro-
fessional value position to combat discrimination as stated in the NASW Code of Ethics.
In working with vulnerable populations, it is important to be aware of our stereotypes and
prejudices so that we do not subtly discriminate against such populations. By being aware of
our prejudices and stereotypes, we can work on reducing and eliminating them.

Currently there are a number of commonly accepted myths and stereotypes about gays
and lesbians. Some of these myths will be summarized and then followed with factual infor-
mation. As you read these myths, consider whether or not you believe any of them.

Myth 1—Appearance and Mannerisms All gay men are effeminate; they have a
“swishy” walk, talk with a lisp, and are limp-wristed. Correspondingly, all lesbians are mas-
culine; they have short hair, dress mainly in men’s clothes, and appear manly.

Fact Because of these stereotypes, many people erroneously believe it is easy to identify
gays and lesbians. The fact is that most gays and lesbians dress, look, and behave just like
everyone else. Except for a small percentage of individuals, it is impossible to recognize a
gay or lesbian simply by his or her appearance or mannerisms.16

223 Identify Stereotypes and Preconceptions

Myth 2—Gender Identity Gay men desire to be women, and lesbians desire to be men.

Fact This myth confuses gender identity (masculine or feminine) with choice of sexual
partner (same sex or heterosexual). The fact is that although gays and lesbians generally
choose a sexual partner of the same sex, their gender identity is identical to that of hetero-
sexuals. A gay man views himself as male and does not desire to be female. A lesbian views
herself as female and does not desire to be male.17

EXERCISE 7.2 Questionnaire about Gays and Lesbians

GOAL: This exercise is designed to assess your views about gays and lesbians.

1. Answer the following questionnaire in terms of your current views.
1. Gay men are effeminate; they have a “swishy” walk, talk with a lisp, and are limp-wristed.

a. True b. False

2. Most lesbians are masculine; they have short hair, dress mainly in men’s clothes, and appear manly.

a. True b. False

3. Gay men desire to be women.

a. True b. False

4. Lesbians desire to be men.

a. True b. False

5. In a gay or lesbian couple, one partner will assume the dominant (sometimes called masculine) role and the other will
assume the submissive (sometimes called feminine) role.

a. True b. False

6. Most gay men are child molesters.

a. True b. False

7. People are either gay/lesbian or heterosexual.

a. True b. False

8. Most gays and lesbians are mentally ill.

a. True b. False

9. Gays and lesbians are to blame for the AIDS epidemic.

a. True b. False

10. People choose to be gay or lesbian

a. True b. False

2. Read the material in this chapter on myths and facts about gays and lesbians. Did this material lead you to want to change
any of your answers to these questions? If yes, specify which answers you would change.

CHAPTER 7: Working with Diverse Groups224

Myth 3—Sexual Roles In a gay or lesbian couple, one partner will assume the domi-
nant (sometimes called masculine) role and the other will assume the submissive (some-
times called feminine) role.

Fact Such role-playing occurs infrequently, as most gays and lesbians engage in many
forms of behavior and do not restrict themselves to one or another role. Gay or lesbian part-
ners often switch roles during the sexual act or engage in mutual oral-genital stimulation.
In regard to role-playing outside the sexual act itself, the vast majority of gay men do not
attempt to play the female role, and the vast majority of lesbians reject the entire practice of
male–female role playing.18

Myth 4—Child Molesters Gay men are child molesters.

Fact The vast majority of child molesting is done by heterosexual men to young girls.19
Parents should be more fearful that heterosexual male teachers will try to seduce their
young daughters than that the gay male teachers will molest their young sons. There is no
reason to assume that a person who is gay/lesbian is more apt to be a child molester than is
a heterosexual.

Myth 5—Gay/Lesbian or Heterosexual People are either gay/lesbian or heterosexual.

Fact Kinsey and his colleagues demonstrated that it is a mistake to conceptualize
gay/lesbian and heterosexuality as comprising two separate categories. Instead, these
researchers found that many people have had some heterosexual and some same-sex
experiences to varying degrees.20 Their seven-point continuum is shown in Figure 7.1.
Probably a majority of adults either have had a gay or lesbian experience or have fanta-
sized about having one.

Myth 6—Mental Illness Gay and lesbians are mentally ill.

Fact Research has found no evidence that gays/lesbians are less well adjusted than het-
erosexuals. Personality tests reveal no differences (except for sexual orientations) between
gays and lesbians and heterosexuals.21 In 1973, the American Psychiatric Association voted
to remove homosexuality from its list of mental disorders, and thus homosexuality is no
longer officially classified as a psychiatric disorder.

Myth 7—AIDS Gays and lesbians are to blame for the AIDS epidemic.

Fact Although gay men are a high-risk group for the AIDS virus in our society, very few
cases have been reported among lesbians. (Gay men are at high risk for acquiring AIDS
due to the transfer of bodily fluids that occurs during anal intercourse.) AIDS is a life-
threatening disease for anyone (gay/lesbian or heterosexual) who is HIV infected. In many
African countries, the majority of people afflicted with AIDS are heterosexuals.

Exclusively
heterosexual

Exclusively
homosexual

Mostly
heterosexual

with incidental
homosexual
experience

Homosexual
with incidental
heterosexual
experience

Heterosexual
with substantial

homosexual
experience

Homosexual
with substantial

heterosexual
experience

Equal
heterosexual and
and homosexual

experience

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

FIGURE 7.1 Sexual Orientation

225 Recognize the Importance of Social Workers Having In-Depth Knowledge

Gay men are not the cause of AIDS. Blaming a deadly disease on the group that, in the
United States, has suffered and died disproportionately from AIDS is a classic case of blam-
ing the victim. Although it is true that the largest single risk group of persons with AIDS is
gay men, it is ludicrous to conclude that this group caused this health crisis. AIDS is caused
by a virus. It is also ludicrous to assert that gay men want to deliver the disease to the world
after first delivering it to themselves. Quite the contrary, the gay male community in the
United States has been in the forefront of educating people about behavior that minimizes
the transmission of the disease. Gay men have radically altered their sexual behavior pat-
terns, as evidenced by a substantial drop in the rate of transmission of the disease among
this group in the past few years.

Myth 8—Sexual Preference People choose to be gay or lesbian.

Fact Research shows that sexual orientation is established early in life, perhaps long
before adolescence.22 Although every person has the potential to behave sexually in the
manner he or she may choose, one’s true sexual orientation may be set before birth or at a
very early age and then no longer influenced by the environment. Many same-sex–oriented
persons behave as if they are heterosexual in this society because there are so many sanc-
tions against same-sex behavior. However, their true sexual orientation and preferred sexual
partner, in the absence of these negative sanctions, would be someone of the same gender.
Human beings certainly have the ability to respond sexually to people who are not their
preferred sexual partners, but to do so requires going against the current of their innermost
inclinations. The question of what causes a person’s sexual orientation to be set (either as
same sex or heterosexual) has not as yet been answered. It appears that some people are
naturally heterosexual in orientation and others are naturally same-sex, just as some people
are naturally left-handed and others are naturally right-handed.

LO 4 Recognize the Importance of Social Workers
Having In-Depth Knowledge of the Diverse
Groups They Work With

KNOWLEDGE ABOUT DIVERSE GROUPS
Social workers sometimes make the mistake of using their own social, cultural, or economic
values as the norm. See, for example, Figure 7.2. If a social worker has experienced the prej-
udices that a client is exposed to and was raised in an environment similar to a client’s, that
worker may be more perceptive about and empathetic to that client. An African American
social worker, for example, may better understand what African American clients are say-
ing and experiencing than a white social worker would. Similarly, a worker with a disability
may be more perceptive to what a client with a disability is thinking and feeling. Conversely,
clients who are members of a vulnerable population may initially feel they are being better
understood when the worker is a member of the same group.

On the other hand, a social worker does not need to be a member of the client’s minor-
ity group in order to work effectively with that client. The problematic nature of cross-
cultural social work does not preclude its effectiveness. Mizio has noted, for example, that
effective white workers can establish viable working relationships with nonwhite clients and
that some nonwhite workers are less effective with others of the same race or culture than
white workers.23 The following example illustrates this point:

In answering the question of whether a white middle-class psychiatrist can treat a black
family, I cannot help but think back over my own experiences. When I first came to New
York and decided to go into psychotherapy I had two main thoughts: (1) that my problems
were culturally determined, and (2) that they were related to my Catholic upbringing. I
had grown up in an environment in which the Catholic Church had tremendous influence.

CHAPTER 7: Working with Diverse Groups226

With these factors in mind, I began to think in terms of the kind of therapist I could best
relate to. In addition to being warm and sensitive, he had to be black and Catholic. Need-
less to say, that was like looking for a needle in a haystack. But after inquiring around, I was
finally referred to a black Catholic psychiatrist.

Without going into too much detail, let me say that he turned out to be not so sensitive and
not so warm. I terminated my treatment with him and began to see another therapist who
was warm, friendly, sensitive, understanding and very much involved with me. Interest-
ingly enough, he was neither black nor Catholic. As a result of that personal experience, I
have come to believe that it is not so much a question of whether the therapist is black or
white but whether he is competent, warm and understanding. Feelings, after all, are neither
black nor white.24

Perhaps it is helpful to state the obvious. We are all human, and we all have some unique-
nesses and differences. But being human, we also have a lot in common. As with any client, the
social worker who is working with a client who is a member of a vulnerable population needs
the skills that will lead to positive changes. Such skills include listening, relationship building,
competence, empathy, and problem solving. A worker’s effectiveness is also increased sub-
stantially by knowledge of a client’s minority group and its unique characteristics.

There are an immense number of different minority groups in our society—several
racial groups, numerous ethnic groups, women, gays and lesbians, many religious groups,
people with mental or physical disabilities, older persons, and others. It is beyond the scope
of this chapter to describe the unique characteristics of these diverse groups. Instead, a few
characteristics of some minority groups will be summarized to illustrate the importance of
learning about the minority group of a client.

When working with Native Americans (American Indians) it is considered rude—an
attempt to intimidate, in fact—to maintain direct eye contact.25 Social workers and other
professionals need to respect this cultural pattern by seeking to substantially reduce direct
eye contact with Native Americans.

If a male client begins talking about his partner, it is a mistake to assume the partner is a
woman and refer to the person as “she” or “her.”26 The client may be gay. Such an erroneous

FIGURE 7.2 Case Example of a Social Worker Mistakenly Viewing a Client from the Worker’s Values

Bill Ridder, an adult services worker at a human services agency, received an anonymous call that a 79-year-old male, Vern Broad-
cort, was living in abysmal conditions. Ridder made a home visit. Vern Broadcort lived alone in a rural area in northern Minnesota.
The house was a mess. There was nearly an inch of dirt and newspapers on the floor. The house had no running water or toilet facili-
ties, and Broadcort’s clothes were filthy. He had not taken a bath for over a year. The house was heated, even in winter, by only a small
wood stove in the kitchen. The refrigerator had a rancid odor because some of the food had spoiled. There were no clean dishes; a
green mold was growing on some that had been used but not washed. Broadcort mentioned he occasionally washed his dishes in
rainwater. The dishwater that was in a large bowl had a muddy dark brown color to it.

Ridder also visited some of Broadcort’s neighbors, who expected the house to catch fire one of these days. They said Broadcort
frequently drank himself into a stupor and then would smoke cigarettes. When he coughed, which he often did (according to the
neighbors), hot ashes from the cigarette would be blown several feet away. Broadcort did appear mentally alert, however, and he
stated his doctor felt he was in fair health. He did suffer from emphysema, arthritis, and an occasional occurrence of gout.

Ridder decided that the best place for Broadcort to live was in a nursing home and found one with an available bed. He then
asked Broadcort if he would be interested in moving there. The reply from Broadcort shocked Kidder. “No way am I moving to a
nursing home,” he said. “This is my home. I was born and raised here, and I intend to die here. If you should get a court order to send
me to a nursing home, I’ll give up the will to live and soon die there. I personally don’t believe you can get a court order to make me
move out of here. I own this place, and, I’m mentally alert and not hurting anyone. Who do you think you are that you can come in
here and tell me where to live?”

Ridder went back to his supervisor to discuss the case. The supervisor informed Ridder that Broadcort, if mentally competent,
had the right, to live where he chose, as long as he was not hurting anyone else in the process. The supervisor then tactfully asked
Ridder to think about whether he was seeking to force his values onto Broadcort, who obviously was content with his living environ-
ment. Ridder thought a while and agreed that he probably was.

227 Recognize the Importance of Social Workers Having In-Depth Knowledge

assumption could lead the client to terminate the interview and further contact. Obviously,
this caution applies to female clients as well. Most helping professionals have also come to
realize that attempts to change a client’s sexual orientation are usually unsuccessful. In the
past, some heterosexual therapists attempted to change homosexual orientation, with poor
results. As explained previously, sexual orientation appears to be established early in life.

Chicano men, in contrast to Anglo men, have been described as exhibiting greater pride
in their maleness.27 Machismo—a male’s sense of personal virility—is highly valued among
Chicano men and is displayed by males to portray dominance and superiority. Machismo
is demonstrated differently by different people. Some may seek to be irresistible to women
and to have a number of sexual partners. Some resort to weapons or fighting. Others boast
of their achievements, even those that never occurred. Recent writers have noted that the
feminist movement, urbanization, upward mobility, and acculturation are contributing to
the decline of machismo.28 Chicanos also tend to be more familistic than Anglos. Familism
is the belief that the family takes precedence over the individual. Schaefer notes:

Familism is generally regarded as good because an extended family provides emotional
strength at times of family crisis . . . The many significant aspects of familism include:
(1) importance of the compadrazo (godparent-godchild relationship); (2) benefits of fi-
nancial dependency of kin; (3) availability of relatives as a source of advice; and (4) active
involvement of the elderly within the family.29

On the negative side, familism may discourage youth from pursuing opportunities
that will take them away from the family. It should be noted that the differences between
Chicanos and Anglos with regard to machismo and familism are differences of degree, not
of kind. Later in this chapter we will examine how the concept of familism can be utilized
in providing services to Chicanos.

Our culture places a high value on physical beauty. Americans spend large proportions
of their budgets on clothes, cosmetics, exercise programs, and special diets to look more
attractive. Beauty is identified with goodness and ugliness with evil. Movies, television, and
books portray heroes and heroines as physically attractive and villains a

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