Unions versus Human Resources

Unions versus Human Resources
Unions versus Human Resources PLEASE DO NOT SUBMIT A BID FOR THIS ASSIGNMENT IF YOU DO NOT UNDERSTAND EDUCATION TERMS AND CONCEPTS. ALL DIRECTIONS MUST BE FOLLOWED AND NO PLAGARIASM. MY SCHOOL USES SOFTWARE TO DETECT COPIED MATERIAL. Please read these assignment instructions before writing your paper, and re-read them often during and after the writing process to make sure that you are fulfilling all of the instructions. Please also utilize the assignment guidance below, resources document and the template provided. In preparation for this assignment, review the following resources: Managing Human Resources – https://hbr.org/1981/09/managing-human-resources A New Mandate for Human Resources – https://hbr.org/1998/01/a-new-mandate-for-human-resources Does This Company Need a Union? – https://hbr.org/1998/05/does-this-company-need-a-union Human Resources Management – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9ZLbSk1Te68&feature=youtu.be Voices of Union – Voices of Young Workers – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hTfjsKNOc2o&feature=youtu.be Workplace Health and Safety History, to the 1920s – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yIVwj1FHOP4 Workplace Health and Safety History 1930s to WWII – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_WUt90rN2Q&feature=youtu.be Workplace Healthy and Safety History WWII to OSHA – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kc-ivXUp6ns&feature=youtu.be According to Beer et al (1984), human resources management (HRM) has developed as a way to serve workers’ interests, albeit internally within the workplace. This challenges the role of worker advocacy.  Historically, workers’ interests have been served by external representatives from labor unions, and have also been protected through government interventions such as laws and regulations. The purpose of this assignment is to understand the roles of unions and the role of HRM, and examine whether workers have adequate support and protections in the modern workplace. After reading the text chapters for Week One and Week Two and reviewing the resources provided: Explain how unions, human resources management personnel, and government interventions (such as laws and regulations) serve to address worker rights and worker safety. Evaluate whether unions and HRM have unique roles for different groups (i.e., the organization, management, and the workers) or if there are areas of overlap. Assess the following statement, “Workers in the modern workplaces of America are well protected and well supported.” Explain whether you agree or disagree with this statement, based on what you now know about government interventions, unions, HRM, and worker advocacy. Be sure to support your agreement or disagreement with statements of reasoning from your analysis. The paper must be four double-spaced pages in length (excluding the title and reference pages) and formatted according to APA style. You must use at least three scholarly sources (which can be found in the Ashford University Library) other than the textbook to support your claims. Cite your sources in text and on the reference page. Reference: Beer et al (1984) Managing Human Assets. The Free Press: New York, NY.
Unions versus Human Resources
7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n avp … 1 /4 8 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n avp … 2 /4 8 L earn in g O bje ctiv e s B y t h e e n d o f t h is c h ap te r, y o u w ill b e a b le t o : R ela te h ow s o cio eco nom ic t r e n ds a n d e x te rn al s o cia l a n d e co nom ic f o rc e s a ffe ct t h e n atu re o f t h e w ork p la ce . S u m mariz e h ow t h e s o cia l c la sse s in t h e U nit e d S ta te s h ave b een im pacte d b y t h e n atio n’s t r a n sit io n f r o m a n in dustr ia l t o a s e rv ic e -b ase d e co nom y o ve r t h e p ast 4 d eca d es. E xp la in w hy s o m e t h eo ris ts m ain ta in t h at g lo baliz a tio n h as le d t o t h e s tr a ti ic a tio n o f n atio ns a n d a g lo bal c o rp ocra cy. D is cu ss w hy t h e G re at R ece ssio n h ad a d is p ro portio nate im pact o n p oor, w ork in g-c la ss, a n d m id dle – c la ss A m eric a n s. 3 S o cio eco n om ic T re n ds a n d t h e W ork fo rc e H ero I m ages / G ett y I m ages 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n avp … 3 /4 8 I n tr o ductio n W hat o pportu nit ie s e x is t fo r y o u in to day ’s jo b m ark e t? Y o ur a n sw er d ep en ds la rg ely o n y o ur b ack g ro und a n d h ow it r e la te s to c u rre n t s o cio eco nom ic tr e n ds. If th e e co nom y is b oom in g a n d y o u h ave s k ills th at a re in d em an d, y o u w ill m ost lik e ly in d a g o od jo b q uic k ly . In e co nom ic d ow ntu rn s, h ow eve r, e ve n h ig h ly q uali ie d p eo ple c a n h ave d if ic u lt y in din g e m plo ym en t. D urin g t h e b oom t im es in t h e 2 000s b efo re th e G re at R ece ssio n, s tu den ts g ra d uatin g fr o m c o lle ge h ad m an y e m plo ym en t o ptio ns. T hose gra d uatin g d urin g— an d eve n afte r— th e G re at R ece ssio n en te re d a sta rk ly d if fe re n t jo b m ark e t, h ow eve r. C hap te r 3 e xa m in es s p eci ic c o m bin atio ns o f e x te rn al s o cia l a n d e co nom ic fo rc e s th at a ffe ct t h e n atu re o f t h e w ork p la ce . I t a ls o lo oks a t h ow s o cio eco nom ic t r e n ds im pact t h e w ork fo rc e a n d y o ur p la ce in it . 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n avp … 4 /4 8 I n t h is v id eo , a n e x p ert d is c u sse s t h e p ro s a n d c o ns, a s w ell a s t h e c au se s, o f l a rg e s c ale s o cia l c h an ge. L arg e S ca le S o cia l C h an ge  C rit ic a l T hin kin g Q uestio n 3 .1 S o cio eco nom ic T re n ds D ein ed W ork e rs’ p erso nal c h ara cte ris tic s a n d c ir c u m sta n ce s— su ch a s e d uca tio n, g en der, c la ss, r a ce , e th nic it y , a n d n atio nalit y — i n lu en ce t h eir p ro sp ects o f in din g w ork , t h e t y p es o f jo bs a va ila b le t o th em , a n d th eir lif e lo ng e arn in gs a n d r e tir e m en t f u nds. P erso nal c ir c u m sta n ce s, h ow eve r, a re o nly a p art o f w hat d ete rm in es w ork e rs’ p osit io ns in th e w ork fo rc e a n d, s u bse q uen tly , th eir q ualit y o f lif e . So cio eco nom ic tr e n ds als o pla y a sig n i ic a n t ro le . S o cio eco n om ic tr e n ds are c o m bin atio ns o f e x te rn al s o cia l a n d e co nom ic f o rc e s t h at a ffe ct t h e n atu re o f t h e w ork p la ce . S o cio eco nom ic t r e n ds in clu de: d em ogra p hic c h an ges in t h e w ork fo rc e ; c o ndit io ns o f lo ca l a n d g lo bal e co nom ie s; t e ch nolo gic a l a d va n ce s; c o ndit io ns o f p artic u la r in dustr ie s ( b oom , s ta b iliz a tio n, o r d eclin e); p olit ic a l a n d le ga l f r a m ew ork s t h at a ffe ct la b or r e la tio ns; a n d v a lu es o f t h e d om in an t c u lt u re . S o cio eco nom ic t r e n ds a re s y ste m ic , in th at th ey c a u se in eq ualit ie s i n a cce ss to e d uca tio n, h ealt h se rv ic e s, a n d e m plo ym en t. T hese f a cto rs co ntr ib ute to d em ogra p hic p ro ile s , or so cio lo gic a l d escrip tio ns o f th e a d va n ta ged a n d d is a d va n ta ged m em bers o f s o cie ty , in clu din g th ose w ho m ay b eco m e ca u gh t in a cy cle o f p ove rty . Long-te rm unem plo ym en t le ad s to pove rty , whic h h in ders acce ss to ed uca tio n, h ealt h se rv ic e s, an d em plo ym en t o pportu nit ie s fo r th e ch ild re n of th e lo ng-te rm unem plo ye d , c o m ple tin g th e cy cle . The sa m e patte rn hold s fo r underp aid e m plo ye es a n d u ndere m plo ye d w ork e rs w ho d o n ot h ave e n ough s te ad y hours of em plo ym en t. These tr e n ds pro duce la rg e n um bers o f p eo ple w ho a re c o nsta n tly o n th e e d ge o f p ove rty , to t h e d egre e t h at t h ey f o rm a d em ogra p hic p ro ile . S ocia l s tr a ti ic a tio n c a n b eco m e e m bed ded in s o cie ty th ro ugh th e a ctio ns o f s o cia l in stit u tio ns a n d p ro ce sse s. F o r e xa m ple , a p oor n eig h borh ood pro duce s poor sch ools , whic h pro duce poor p eo ple . This pro ce ss ca u se s in eq ualit ie s to beco m e i n stit u tio n aliz ed , m ean in g th at so cia l in stit u tio ns p ro m ote a n d m ain ta in c ir c u m sta n ce s th at s u pport a c y cle o f p ove rty fo r s o m e a n d a c y cle o f a d va n ta ge fo r o th ers. In stit u tio nal d is crim in atio n c a n b e in te n tio nal, su ch a s d urin g th e Jim C ro w era o f le ga lly m an date d ra cia lly se gre ga te d sch ools in so uth ern sta te s. It ca n a ls o be th e unin te n tio nal by-p ro duct of how an in stit u tio n f u nctio ns. A s n ote d in th e ir st e xa m ple , fu ndin g s ch ools th ro ugh l o ca l p ro perty ta xe s re su lt s in lo w -in co m e n eig h borh oods w it h p oorly fu nded sch ools an d hig h -in co m e neig h borh oods w it h a b undan t r e so urc e s. T his w ork s to r e in fo rc e in eq ualit ie s a m ong s o cia l cla sse s. It help s stu den ts fr o m w ealt h ie r fa m ilie s have a cce ss t o t h e b est t e ach ers a n d r e so urc e s, g et a g o od e d uca tio n, a n d r e m ain in t h e h ig h er s o cia l c la sse s. O n t h e o th er h an d, p oorly f u nded s ch ools , a tte n ded p rim arily b y p oor c h ild re n , t e n d to h ave le ss q uali ie d te ach ers a n d f e w er r e so urc e s. T his n ega tiv e ly im pacts th eir e d uca tio nal e x p erie n ce a n d d ecre ase s th e lik e lih ood th at th ey w ill in d a j o b t h at p ay s w ell e n ough t o liv e in a n a re a w it h w ell- fu nded s ch ools a n d b e a b le to p ro vid e t h eir c h ild re n w it h a g o od e d uca tio n. T his in stit u tio nal d is crim in atio n is n ot in te n tio nal, b ut it s till a cts t o p erp etu ate in eq ualit y in s o cie ty . F a cto rs T hat A ffe ct S o cio eco n om ic T re n ds 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n avp … 5 /4 8 F o ur t y p es o f e x te rn al f o rc e s in lu en ce s o cio eco nom ic t r e n ds: d em ogra p hic , m ark e t, t e ch nolo gic a l, a n d le gis la tiv e . D em ogra phic t r e n ds in clu de t h e n um bers o f w om en a n d m en in t h e w ork fo rc e a n d w ork e rs’ a ges, e d uca tio nal l e ve ls , a n d r a cia l a n d e th nic b ack g ro unds. T hese t r e n ds c a n in lu en ce o ne’s c h an ce s o f la n din g a jo b o r g a in in g a p ro m otio n. F o r e xa m ple , t o day m an y b ab y b oom ers h ave o pte d t o d ela y r e tir e m en t, le ad in g t o f e w er jo b o pen in gs, p artic u la rly h ig h -r a n kin g o nes, f o r y o unger w ork e rs. M ark et t r e n ds s te m f r o m e co nom ic f o rc e s t h at le ad t o lo w o r h ig h d em an ds f o r w ork e rs in s p eci ic a re as. F o r e xa m ple , in dustr ie s e x p erie n cin g r a p id g ro w th m ay r e q uir e w ork e rs w it h s p eci ic a n d u niq ue s k ills , w hic h le ad s t o m ore jo b o pportu nit ie s f o r w ork e rs t h at p osse ss t h ose . L ik e w is e , e co nom ic d ow ntu rn s m ay c o m pel o rg a n iz a tio ns t o r e d uce t h eir la b or f o rc e , r e su lt in g in o uts o urc in g, a u to m atio n, a n d m ore t e m pora ry o r p art- t im e p osit io ns. T ech n olo gic a l t r e n ds m ay r e n der e n tir e in dustr ie s o r p ro fe ssio ns o bso le te b y a u to m atin g p ro ce sse s ( s u ch a s c o nductin g s a le s v ia w eb sit e s r a th er t h an t h ro ugh s a le sp eo ple ), e lim in atin g s e rv ic e s ( s u ch a s e m plo yin g f e w er p eo ple a s a cco unta n ts , g iv e n t h e a d ve n t o f t a x p re p ara tio n s o ftw are s u ch a s T u rb oTa x™ ), a n d r e p la cin g p ro ducts ( fo r e xa m ple , f e w er p eo ple b uy c a m era s n ow t h at s m artp hones c o nta in t h em ). A t t h e s a m e t im e, e n tir e in dustr ie s t h at d id n ot e x is t 1 0 t o 2 0 y e ars a go a re e m erg in g a s a r e su lt o f t e ch nolo gic a l a d va n ce m en ts ( s u ch a s r e p uta tio n c o m pan ie s t h at h elp c lie n ts p ro te ct h ow t h ey a re p erc e iv e d o nlin e). M an y s ch ola rs a rg u e t h at w e n ow liv e in a n a ge in w hic h in fo rm atio n t e ch nolo gy d riv e s t h e e co nom y ( C aste lls , 1 996), c re atin g a n ew t y p e o f h ig h ly s k ille d w ork e r t h at b elo ngs t o w hat h as b een t e rm ed t h e c re ativ e c la ss ( F lo rid a, 2 002). O n t h e o th er h an d, e ve n s o m e h ig h ly s k ille d jo bs— in clu din g p harm acis t, la w ye r, a n d s u rg eo n— may b e r e p la ce d b y r o bots in t h e n ear t e rm ( A quin o, 2 011). L eg is la tiv e t r e n ds im pact t h e w ork p la ce t h ro ugh in te rn atio nal t r a d e a n d i m mig ra tio n a gre em en ts . S u ch t r e n ds a ls o in vo lv e t h e c re atio n a n d e n fo rc e m en t ( o r n onen fo rc e m en t) o f la w s a n d r e gu la tio ns t h at d ic ta te h ealt h a n d s a fe ty p ra ctic e s a n d o rg a n iz a tio ns’ in an cia l o blig a tio ns a n d r e q uir e m en ts . T hese t r e n ds r e le ct c u rre n t p olit ic a l a n d c u lt u ra l v a lu es a n d c a n le ad t o m ore o r le ss in eq ualit y in s o cie ty . S o cia l T re n ds a n d t h e W ork p la ce S o cio eco nom ic tr e n ds h ave le d to th e d eve lo pm en t o f g lo bal c it ie s th at h ave e n orm ous d egre es o f in co m e in eq ualit y . W it h in th ese u rb an a re as, s o cia l c la ss d iv is io ns a re w id en in g b etw een a s u per-r ic h a n d a m id dle c la ss o n th e e d ge o f p ove rty ( S asse n , 2 013). G lo bal c it ie s g en era lly c o nta in h ig h ly p ola riz e d la b or m ark e ts in w hic h s o m e w ork e rs s e rv e in h ig h -p aid p osit io ns w it h in w hit e -c o lla r p ro fe ssio ns s u ch a s in an ce , a cco untin g, a n d r e al e sta te , w hile t h e m ajo rit y o f th e c it y ’s w ork e rs h old lo w -p aid jo bs in s e rv ic e in dustr ie s, ty p ic a lly w it h out b en eit s . L ondon, E ngla n d; M um bai, In dia ; a n d L ago s, N ig eria a re e xa m ple s o f s u ch g lo bal c it ie s. I n eq ualit y w it h in U .S . c it ie s h as a ls o in cre ase d in r e ce n t y e ars, p artic u la rly in c it ie s a lo ng th e c o asts . T a b le 3 .1 s h ow s, a m ong t h e la rg est 5 0 c it ie s in t h e U nit e d S ta te s, t h ose w it h t h e h ig h est a n d lo w est le ve ls o f in eq ualit y , a s in dic a te d b y th e r a tio o f h ouse h old in co m e o f t h e 9 5th p erc e n tile o ve r t h at o f t h e 2 0th p erc e n tile . T a ble 3 .1 : I n co m e i n eq u alit y a m on g t h e 5 0 l a rg est U .S . c it ie s C it y : h ig h est i n eq u alit y P op ula tio n H ou se h old i n co m e, 2 012 R atio 2 012 2 0th p erc e n tile 9 5th p erc e n tile 1 A tla n ta , G eo rg ia 4 43,7 68 $ 1 4,8 50 $ 2 79,8 27 1 8.8 2 S an F ra n cis co , C alif o rn ia 8 25,8 63 $ 2 1,3 13 $ 3 53,5 76 1 6.6 3 M ia m i, F lo rid a 4 13,8 64 $ 1 0,4 38 $ 1 64,0 13 1 5.7 4 B osto n, M assa ch use tts 6 37,5 16 $ 1 4,6 04 $ 2 23,8 38 1 5.3 5 W ash in gto n, D .C . 6 32,3 23 $ 2 1,7 82 $ 2 90,6 37 1 3.3 6 N ew Y o rk , N ew Y o rk 8 ,3 36,6 97 $ 1 7,1 19 $ 2 26,6 75 1 3.2 7 O akla n d, C alif o rn ia 4 00,7 40 $ 1 7,6 46 $ 2 23,9 65 1 2.7 8 C hic a go , I llin ois 2 ,7 14,8 44 $ 1 6,0 78 $ 2 01,4 60 1 2.5 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n avp … 6 /4 8 9 L os A ngele s, C alif o rn ia 3 ,8 57,7 86 $ 1 7,6 57 $ 2 17,7 70 1 2.3 1 0 B alt im ore , M ary la n d 6 21,3 42 $ 1 3,5 22 $ 1 64,9 95 1 2.2 C it y : l o w est i n eq u alit y P op ula tio n H ou se h old i n co m e, 2 012 R atio 2 012 2 0th p erc e n tile 9 5th p erc e n tile 4 1 O kla h om a C it y , O kla h om a 5 99,3 09 $ 1 8,8 35 $ 1 60,1 25 8 .5 4 2 R ale ig h , N orth C aro lin a 4 23,7 43 $ 2 4,1 13 $ 1 99,9 11 8 .3 4 3 O m ah a, N eb ra sk a 4 21,5 64 $ 1 9,6 49 $ 1 61,9 10 8 .2 4 4 F o rt W orth , T e xa s 7 82,0 27 $ 2 0,9 92 $ 1 68,9 89 8 .1 4 5 C olo ra d o S p rin gs, C olo ra d o 4 31,8 46 $ 2 2,2 13 $ 1 75,0 34 7 .9 4 6 W ic h it a , K an sa s 3 85,5 86 $ 1 9,5 16 $ 1 51,0 68 7 .7 4 7 L as V ega s, N eva d a 5 96,4 40 $ 2 1,3 80 $ 1 64,3 44 7 .7 4 8 M esa , A riz o na 4 52,0 68 $ 2 1,0 07 $ 1 57,1 90 7 .5 4 9 A rlin gto n, T e xa s 3 75,5 98 $ 2 4,1 69 $ 1 75,7 59 7 .3 5 0 V ir g in ia B each , V ir g in ia 4 47,0 21 $ 3 1,0 51 $ 1 87,6 52 6 .0 S ource : B eru be, 2 014. A s tu dy in 2 014 r e ve ale d th at in 9 0 U .S . c it ie s, th e m ed ia n r e n t ( e xclu din g u tilit ie s) w as m ore th an 3 0% o f th e m ed ia n i n co m e , t h e a ve ra ge in co m e le ve l a t w hic h h alf th e p opula tio n m ake s m ore a n d h alf m ake s le ss, in th e r e sp ectiv e c it ie s. T o day h alf o f U .S . r e n te rs s p en d m ore t h an 3 0% o f th eir in co m e o n r e n t, c o m pare d to 3 8% o f r e n te rs in 2 000 ( D ew an , 2 014). F ig u re 3 .1 r e ve als h ow t h e p erc e n ta ge o f s u ch h ouse h old s h as in cre ase d d ra m atic a lly in r e ce n t y e ars. F ig u re 3 .1 : O ve rb urd en ed r e n te rs R en ts i n cre ase d d ra m atic a lly i n t h e 2 000s. S ource : J o in t C en te r f o r H ousin g S tu die s o f H arv a rd U niv ersit y , 2 013, p . 5 . 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n avp … 7 /4 8 E co n om ic S ta tu s E co n om ic sta tu s re fe rs to th e in an cia l cir c u m sta n ce s o f in div id uals , fa m ilie s, o r so cia l gro ups. Eco nom ic sta tu s i n lu en ce s so cia l m obilit y beca u se it dete rm in es acce ss to ed uca tio n, em plo ym en t, housin g, an d tr a n sp orta tio n. E co nom ic c ir c u m sta n ce s a ls o a ffe ct q ualit y o f lif e b y d ete rm in in g a cce ss t o h ealt h c a re , s a fe a n d s e cu re liv in g c o ndit io ns, a n d fr e sh fo od. T o day 2 3.5 m illio n U .S . r e sid en ts — 1 in 1 3— liv e in a re as w it h out g ro ce ry s to re s o r o th er s o urc e s o f f r e sh o r n utr it io us fo od ( C ora p i, 2 014). In C hic a go a lo ne, 4 50,0 00 p eo ple liv e in s u ch “ fo od d ese rts ” ( R uth hart, 2 013). T hose w it h lo w e co nom ic s ta tu s m ay e x p erie n ce p oore r h ealt h a n d e ve n sh orte n ed lif e sp an s a s a re su lt o f b ein g d ep riv e d o f t h ese b asic n eed s. A cco rd in g t o t h e f u nctio nalis t p ersp ectiv e o f E m ile D urk h eim a n d T a lc o tt P arso ns, e co nom ic in eq ualit ie s a re n atu ra l a n d c a n b en eit so cie ty . F u nctio nalis ts b elie ve th at th ose w ho co ntr ib ute th e m ost to so cie ty sh ould re ap th e gre ate st r e w ard s. I n eq ualit ie s b ase d o n s k ill a n d e ffo rt m otiv a te p eo ple t o w ork h ard s o t h ey c a n im pro ve th eir s o cia l s ta tu s a n d b e b ette r r e w ard ed . I n c o ntr a st, th e c o nlic t p ersp ectiv e , d eve lo ped b y K arl M arx , p erc e iv e s in eq ualit ie s a s c re ate d a n d u se d b y t h ose w it h h ig h e co nom ic s ta tu s ( m oney a n d p ow er) to r e ta in th eir o w n p osit io ns a n d o ppre ss o th ers. C onlic t t h eo ris ts w arn t h at t h is d im in is h es h um an p ote n tia l b y lim it in g o pportu nit y . S tr u ctu re d in eq ualit y d oes n ot e n su re th at t h e g re ate st r e w ard s a re g a in ed b y th ose w ho c o ntr ib ute th e m ost o r w ho h ave th e g re ate st ta le n t a n d p ote n tia l, b ut r a th er b y t h ose p osit io ned w it h t h e m ost p ow er in a s tr a ti ie d s o cia l s tr u ctu re . C la ss S tr u ctu re i n t h e U nit e d S ta te s A s o cia l c la ss co nsis ts of a gro up of in div id uals w ho sh are ce rta in eco nom ic an d cu lt u ra l cir c u m sta n ce s. The c o nte m pora ry c la ss s y ste m c o nsis ts o f g ro ups o f in div id uals ( a n d h ouse h old s) w it h c o m para b le in co m e, c u lt u ra l tr a it s , j o b t y p es, a n d lif e sty le s. M em bers o f th e u pper c la sse s s h are c u lt u ra l a ttr ib ute s th at h elp th em r e ta in th eir p osit io ns in s o cie ty . F o r e xa m ple , th ey h ave s o cia l c a p it a l , w hic h m ean s th ey k n ow o th er p eo ple in th e d om in an t c la ss w ho c a n c o nnect t h em t o jo b o pportu nit ie s a n d o th er e x p erie n ce s c rit ic a l t o e co nom ic s u cce ss ( B ourd ie u , 1 986). M em bers o f th e u pper c la ss a ls o s h are a su bcu lt u re w it h o th er m em bers o f th eir re sp ectiv e cla ss, g iv in g th em th e p ow er o f c u lt u ra l c a p it a l (B ourd ie u , 1 986). K now le d ge a sso cia te d w it h th is s u bcu lt u re a llo w s th em to co m fo rta b ly i n te ra ct w it h e ach o th er, w hic h g iv e s th em a n e d ge o ve r m em bers o f o th er s o cia l c la sse s w ho m ay n ot k n ow h ow to d re ss, a ct, a n d s p eak a p pro pria te ly in th e c o m pan y o f th ose w ho h old k e y p osit io ns in th e w ork fo rc e (W illis , 1 981; W acq uan t & W ils o n, 1 989). I t is im porta n t t o r e co gn iz e t h e d if fe re n ce b etw een i n co m e , t h e a m ount o f m oney e arn ed b y a n in div id ual, a n d w ea lt h , t h e a sse ts a n in div id ual o w ns. W ealt h h elp s d ete rm in e a n in div id ual’s lif e sty le , a b ilit y to re sp ond to e m erg en cie s o r e co nom ic s h if ts , a n d m ean s t o a ccu m ula te m ore w ealt h . H om e o w ners h ave m ore w ealt h th an p eo ple w ho r e n t b eca u se p ro perty is a n a sse t. L ik e w is e , b usin ess o w ners g en era lly h ave m ore w ealt h t h an t h e e m plo ye es w ho w ork f o r t h em . I n a d dit io n, s o cia l s ta tu s — one’s p osit io n o r r a n k w it h in s o cie ty — an d c u lt u ra l a ttr ib u te s — kn ow le d ge, a ttit u des, a n d v a lu es tr a n sm it te d th ro ugh a rt, e d uca tio n, s o cia l c u sto m s, a n d p atte rn s o f b eh av io r (im plic it a n d e x p lic it ) — als o h elp i n lu en ce e co nom ic c la ss. O ne’s s o cia l r a n k o pen s d oors to e x p erie n ce s a n d re la tio nsh ip s o ne w ould n ot o th erw is e h ave . N av ig a tin g t h ese r e la tio nsh ip s w it h o ne’s c u lt u ra l a ttr ib ute s s h ow s t h at a p erso n b elo ngs in a p artic u la r w ork p la ce ( a n d it s in -g ro ups; s e e C hap te r 4 ) a n d p ro duce s o utc o m es f a vo ra b le t o m ain ta in in g o ne’s e co nom ic c la ss. U sin g th ese c o nce p ts , D en nis G ilb ert (2 015) p ro pose s a s ix -tie r s y ste m o f e co nom ic c la ss in th e U nit e d S ta te s in h is b ook, T he A m eric a n C la ss S tr u ctu re in a n A ge o f G ro w in g I n eq u alit y . 1 . T he c a pit a lis t c la ss ( u pper c la ss) in clu des t o p e xe cu tiv e s, in ve sto rs, la rg e c o m pan y o w ners, a n d h eir s, a ll o f w hom h ave in co m es o f m ore t h an $ 2 ,0 00,0 00 p er y e ar. 2 . T he u pper m id dle c la ss c o nsis ts o f h ig h ly s k ille d p ro fe ssio nals — su ch a s s u rg eo ns, u pper m an agem en t, m ed iu m – s iz e b usin ess o w ners, e n gin eers, o r a ca d em ic s— who e arn b etw een $ 1 50,0 00 a n d $ 2 ,0 00,0 00 a n nually . 3 . T he m id dle c la ss in clu des e m plo ye es in lo w er m an agem en t, s k ille d c ra fts p eo ple , t e ch nic ia n s, s u perv is o rs, a n d s m all b usin ess o w ners. T his g ro up e arn s a p pro xim ate ly $ 7 0,0 00 p er y e ar. 4 . T he w ork in g c la ss , t h e la rg est g ro up in t h e U nit e d S ta te s, in clu des lo w -s k ille d w ork e rs s u ch a s c le rk s, s a le sp erso ns, a n d la b ore rs. T his g ro up m ake s a ro und $ 4 0,0 00 a n nually . 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n avp … 8 /4 8 5 . T he w ork in g p oor c o nsis ts o f t h e lo w est p aid w ork e rs in r e ta il o r s e rv ic e in dustr ie s s u ch a s f o od s e rv ic e , h osp it a lit y , a n d ja n it o ria l, e arn in g a ro und $ 2 5,0 00 p er y e ar. 6 . T he u ndercla ss ( v e ry p oor) in clu des t h e u nem plo ye d o r p eo ple w it h out a p erm an en t jo b, w ho u su ally r e ce iv e p ublic a ssis ta n ce a n d h ave in co m es o f le ss t h an $ 1 5,0 00 p er y e ar. F ig u re 3 .2 f u rth er illu str a te s t h ese t ie rs o f e co nom ic c la ss. F ig u re 3 .2 : G ilb ert’s m od el o f c la ss s tr u ctu re A cco rd in g t o G ilb ert’s m od el, t h e u pper m id dle a n d c a p it a lis t c la sse s m ake u p j u st 1 5% o f t h e o ve ra ll p op ula tio n . S ource : G ilb ert, 2 008, p . 1 3. C o py rig ht © S age. M ore o ve r, w hen o ne lo oks a t t h e r ic h est g ro up o f p eo ple in th e U nit e d S ta te s— th e to p 1 % — it is c le ar th at th ere e x is ts r e m ark a b le in eq ualit y w it h in th is g ro up a s w ell. T he m ed ia n y e arly in co m e o f th e to p 0 .0 1% , th e s u per ric h , ($ 3 1 m illio n) is m uch h ig h er th an th e to p 0 .1 % ($ 7 m illio n), a n d m uch , m uch h ig h er th an m ost o th ers in th e to p 1 % ( ju st u nder $ 1 m illio n) (T hom pso n, 2 014). T his n ew e co nom ic cla ss— th e su per ric h — has b en eit e d fr o m co nte m pora ry s o cio eco nom ic t r e n ds, w hic h w e w ill n ow e x p lo re in m ore d ep th . 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n avp … 9 /4 8 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 1 0/4 8 S anja gru jic / iS to ck /T hin ksto ck A u to m atio n a n d t e ch nolo gy, s u ch a s A T M s, a re s o cio eco n om ic f o rc e s t h at h ave e lim in ate d c e rta in j o bs f r o m t h e U .S . e co n om y. 3 .2 F ro m a n I n dustr ia l t o a S e rv ic e -B ase d E co nom y O ve r t h e p ast 4 d eca d es, t h e U nit e d S ta te s h as m ove d f r o m a n in dustr ia l t o a s e rv ic e -b ase d e co nom y. A s d is cu sse d in th e p re v io us c h ap te rs, d urin g t h e I n dustr ia l R evo lu tio n, t h e U nit e d S ta te s u se d t o p ro duce m an y g o ods, a n d t h e c it ie s w here t h is in dustr y to ok p la ce th riv e d . F o r e xa m ple , B ro ck to n, M assa ch use tts , w as k n ow n a s “ s h oe c it y ” b eca u se it p ro duce d h alf th e s h oes w orn in th e U nit e d S ta te s in th e m id -1 800s. S im ila rly , P ate rso n, N ew Je rse y, w as k n ow n a s “s ilk cit y ” b eca u se it w as o nce t h e c e n te r o f s ilk m an ufa ctu rin g. T o day b oth o f th ese c it ie s a re e co nom ic a lly d ep re sse d , w it h m an y e m pty o r r e p urp ose d f a cto ry b uild in gs. T he tr a n sfo rm atio n o f th ese c it ie s a n d m an y o th ers lik e th em w as th e r e su lt o f i n te rre la te d s o cio eco nom ic fo rc e s, in clu din g a u to m atio n, th e d eclin e o f u nio ns, th e g ro w th in th e p ow er o f b usin ess v e rsu s g o ve rn m en t, a n d g lo baliz a tio n. A uto m atio n a n d O th er T ech nolo gic a l I n nova tio n s W ho an sw ers th e phone w hen yo u ca ll yo ur ca b le or ele ctr ic c o m pan y, o r e ve n y o ur s u perm ark e t? H ow d o y o u g et m oney w hen y o u n eed it ? W ho ta ke s yo ur m oney w hen yo u pay a to ll on a h ig h w ay ? W ho p ack a ged th e la st fr o ze n d in ner y o u a te ? F o r m ost p eo ple th e a n sw er to a ll o f th ese q uestio ns is th e s a m e: a m ach in e. T o day m ach in es ca rry o ut m an y jo bs th at peo ple did ju st a fe w d eca d es ago . Te ch nolo gic a l ad va n ce s in tr a n sp orta tio n have als o m ad e it p ossib le fo r m an ufa ctu re rs w ho s till n eed to h ir e h um an s to in d th em in o th er a re as o f th e w orld , w here th ey ca n p ay lo w er s a la rie s. T he re su lt is th e d is a p peara n ce o f m an y jo bs th at once e x is te d in t h e U nit e d S ta te s. T he D eclin e o f U nio n s T he r e d uctio n in jo bs b ro ugh t o n b y a u to m atio n a n d o th er t e ch nolo gic a l a d va n ce s w as ju st o ne o f th e fa cto rs n ega tiv e ly i m pactin g m an y w ork e rs d urin g t h e la st d eca d es o f t h e 2 0th c e n tu ry. T hey a ls o f a ce d t h e d eclin e o f u nio ns. A s d escrib ed i n C hap te r 2 , u nio ns a tta in ed m uch p ow er d urin g t h e G re at D ep re ssio n a n d c o ntin ued to m ake g a in s d urin g th e m id dle p art o f th e 2 0th c e n tu ry. U nio ns m ad e it p ossib le fo r m an y A m eric a n s to s e cu re a fa cto ry jo b o ut o f h ig h s ch ool th at w ould p ay a liv in g w age. T hat b ega n to c h an ge in th e 1 970s a n d 1 980s, h ow eve r, w hen g o ve rn m en t p olic ie s b ega n to f a vo r b usin ess in te re sts o ve r u nio n in te re sts . T he R is e ( A ga in ) o f B ig B usin ess I n 1 981 P re sid en t R onald R eaga n ir e d a lm ost 1 2,0 00 s tr ik in g a ir t r a fic c o ntr o lle rs a n d r e p la ce d th em w it h m ilit a ry a ir t r a fic c o ntr o lle rs. P rio r t o t h is la n dm ark a ctio n, m an y g o ve rn m en t u nio ns h ad v io la te d th e la w th at b an ned th em fr o m s tr ik in g, b ut n one h ad e ve r b een p unis h ed w it h t e rm in atio n. M ore o ve r, it w as e xce ed in gly r a re fo r e m plo ye rs to h ir e o th er w ork e rs to re p la ce th ose o n str ik e . W hen R eaga n ir e d th e str ik in g air tr a fic co ntr o lle rs, it em bold en ed e m plo ye rs w ho fa ce d s tr ik in g w ork e rs to , lik e th e p re sid en t, ir e th em a n d in d r e p la ce m en ts . It a ls o le d u nio ns to r e ly m uch le ss o n s tr ik in g, w hic h in t u rn r e d uce d t h eir p ow er ( S ch alc h , 2 006). R eaga n a ls o p ersu ad ed C ongre ss to c u t ta xe s fo r c o rp ora tio ns, w it h th e e x p ecta tio n th at co rp ora tio ns w ould in ve st t h ose s a v in gs in to t h eir b usin esse s a n d c re ate m ore jo bs. R eaga n ’s p la n w as k n ow n a s tr ic k le -d ow n e co nom ic s b eca u se i t p ro pose d t h at p ro sp erit y w ould c a sca d e fr o m th e to p to th e b otto m o f th e A m eric a n e co nom ic la d der. U nfo rtu nate ly f o r U .S . w ork e rs, m an y c o rp ora tio ns in ste ad in ve ste d th eir ta x c u ts in to b uild in g fa cto rie s in n atio ns w it h c h eap er a n d n onunio niz e d la b or. T his sp ed u p th e p ro ce ss o f d ein dustr ia liz a tio n in th e U nit e d Sta te s, as m an ufa ctu rin g jo bs d ecre ase d a n d th e n atio n d eve lo ped in to m ore o f a s e rv ic e e co nom y. U nio ns w ere le ft w it h fe w er m em bers a n d le ss p ow er, w hic h h urt t h eir a b ilit y t o b arg a in w it h e m plo ye rs. G lo b aliz a tio n a n d M cD on ald iz a tio n 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 1 1 /4 8 I n t h is v id eo , G eo rg e R it z er’s t h eo ry o f t h e M cD onald iz atio n o f s o cie ty i s e x p la in ed . D ein dustr ia liz a tio n w as fu ele d b y th e te ch nolo gic a l ad va n ce s th at m ad e it m ore fe asib le an d affo rd ab le to cre ate p ro ducts in o ne a re a o f t h e w orld a n d s h ip t h em t o a n oth er. A lt h ough it h ad b een in m otio n fo r c e n tu rie s, g lo baliz a tio n s u dden ly a cce le ra te d a s m ore c o rp ora tio ns t o ok t h eir o pera tio ns t o t h e w orld s ta ge. T his le d t o w hat s o cio lo gis t G eo rg e R it z e r ( 2 009) c a lls M cD on ald iz a tio n , a s u cce sso r t o F o rd is m in w hic h “ th e p ro ce ss b y w hic h th e p rin cip le s o f th e fa st- f o od r e sta u ra n t a re c o m in g t o d om in ate m ore a n d m ore s e cto rs o f A m eric a n s o cie ty a s w ell a s t h e r e st o f th e w orld ” ( p . 2 63). T hese p rin cip le s a re e fic ie n cy, c a lc u la b ilit y , p re d ic ta b ilit y , in cre ase d c o ntr o l, a n d th e r e p la ce m en t o f h um an s w it h n onhum an t e ch nolo gy. F o r e xa m ple , g lo bal c o rp ora tio ns fo cu s o n g ettin g a p ro duct to a c u sto m er a s q uic k ly a s p ossib le , ca lc u la tin g to th e p en ny h ow m uch e ach p art o f th e p ro ce ss ta ke s. A n im porta n t p art o f th is p ro ce ss is m akin g s u re it is c a rrie d o ut th e s a m e w ay e ach t im e b y c a re fu lly c o ntr o llin g h ow it is d one a n d h av in g m ach in es, r a th er th an h um an s, p erfo rm a s m uch o f th e w ork a s p ossib le . M cD onald ’s p atr o ns in N ew Y o rk , P aris , o r V en ic e k n ow th at th eir B ig M ac w ill c o nsis t o f th e s a m e s iz e a n d a m ount o f “tw o a ll b eef p attie s, s p ecia l s a u ce , le ttu ce , c h eese , p ic k le s, o nio ns o n a se sa m e se ed b un” ( M cD onald ’s , 2 012). I t w ill a ls o b e c o oke d w it h t h e s a m e m ach in e, a t t h e s a m e t e m pera tu re , a n d f o r t h e s a m e a m ount o f t im e r e q uir e d b y t h e m an ufa ctu rin g in str u ctio ns f o r M cD onald ’s p ro ducts . T he M cD on ald iz a tio n o f S o cie ty C rit ic a l T hin kin g Q uestio n 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 1 2/4 8 3 .3 W orld -S y ste m s A naly sis o f G lo baliz a tio n a n d I ts I m pact A t th e m acro le ve l, g lo baliz a tio n c a n b e v ie w ed th ro ugh th e w orld -s y ste m s a n aly sis d escrib ed b y s o cio lo gis ts s u ch a s I m man uel W alle rste in . W orld -s y ste m s t h eo ris ts v ie w th e w orld a s o ne g lo bal e co nom ic s y ste m th at c a n b e d iv id ed in to c o re n atio ns, se m ip erip hery n atio ns, an d p erip hery n atio ns (W alle rste in , 2 004). F ig u re 3 .3 illu str a te s th is w orld – s y ste m s p ersp ectiv e . C o re , S e m ip erip hery , a n d P erip hery N atio n s C o re n atio n s a re th e w ealt h ie st in te rm s o f in co m e a n d re so urc e s; th us, th ey h ave th e m ost e co nom ic p ow er. T he U nit e d S ta te s a n d G erm an y— th e e co nom ic p ow erh ouse o f th e E u ro pean U nio n— are e xa m ple s o f c o re n atio ns in th e w orld e co nom y. C ore n atio ns a re h ig h ly a d va n ce d e co nom ic a lly a n d, g iv e n t h eir r e so urc e s, c a n ta ke a le ad ersh ip r o le in d eve lo pin g a n d u sin g n ew t e ch nolo gie s. F ig u re 3 .3 : C o re , s e m ip erip hera l, a n d p erip hera l n atio n s A cco rd in g t o W alle rste in ’s w orld -s y ste m s t h eory, c o re n atio n s c o n sis t o f t h e U nit e d S ta te s, C an ad a, J a p an , A ustr a lia , N ew Z eala n d, a n d m ost o f w este rn E u ro p e. W alle rste in p oin ts o ut t h at c o re n atio ns c o m pete f o r d om in an ce in p ro ductiv it y , t r a d e, a n d in an ce . A n atio n t h at le ad s in a ll t h re e o f t h ese a sp ects a t o nce is c o nsid ere d to b e th e m ost p ow erfu l ( W alle rste in , 2 004). F o r th e p ast 6 0 y e ars, th e U nit e d S ta te s h as d om in ate d in a ll th re e ca te go rie s a n d m ain ta in ed a le ad p osit io n in p ow er a n d eco nom ic sta tu s c o m pare d to o th er c o re n atio ns. W alle rste in a rg u es th at th e le ad p osit io n c a n c h an ge m ore r a p id ly th an it o nce d id b eca u se o f t h e lu ctu atin g n atu re o f m odern p ro ductiv it y , t r a d e, a n d in an ce . U nlik e in t h e p ast, w hen n atio ns d om in ate d w orld le ad ersh ip f o r c e n tu rie s a n d d om in an ce w as la rg ely d ete rm in ed b y m ilit a ry s tr e n gth a n d la n dm ass, m odern c o re n atio n s ta tu s is lik e ly t o c h an ge m ore q uic k ly . C ore n atio ns c a n b e s e en a s s im ila r to th e p ow er e lit e in C . W rig h t M ills ’s d escrip tio n o f p ow er r e la tio ns. W here as th e p ow er e lit e h ave in lu en ce w it h in th eir r e sp ectiv e c o untr ie s, c o re n atio ns h ave a d om in an t in lu en ce th ro ugh out th e w orld . A s a r e su lt , c o re n atio ns d riv e th e m ark e t in te rm s o f w hat g o ods a n d s e rv ic e s a re a va ila b le . A noth er p ara lle l b etw een c o re n atio ns a n d th e p ow er e lit e is th eir in cre ase d a cce ss to n onin an cia l r e so urc e s su ch a s e x p ertis e a n d k n ow le d ge. F o r e xa m ple , in 2 013 c o re n atio ns h ouse d th e te n m ost a d va n ce d r e se arc h u niv e rsit ie s in e n gin eerin g a n d t e ch nolo gy ( Q S, 2 014). 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 1 3/4 8 V is io ns o f A m eric a /Su perS to ck S o m e c o n lic t t h eo ris ts b elie ve t h at c o rp ora tio n s h ave s o m uch i n lu en ce t h at t h eir p ow er e xc e ed s t h at o f n atio n s, r e su lt in g i n w hat i s k n ow n a s g lo bal c o rp ocra cy. W orld -s y ste m s th eo ris ts c o nte n d th at a lt h ough s e m ip erip hery n atio n s, s u ch a s C hin a, In dia , B ra zil, a n d M ex ic o a re d ir e ctly in vo lv e d w it h co re n atio ns, th ey d o n ot h ave th e sa m e le ve l o f p ro ductiv it y , in te rn atio nal tr a d e, o r is ca l r e so urc e s a s c o re n atio ns. In o th er w ord s, th ey m ay h ave str o ng d om estic e co nom ie s, b ut th ey a re n ot co nsid ere d i n te rn atio nally d om in an t. N oneth ele ss, th e w orld m ark e t re lie s o n se m ip erip hery natio ns’ pro ductiv it y an d tr a d e. A lt h ough se m ip erip hery c o untr ie s m ay n ot ta ke th e le ad in d eve lo pin g n ew te ch nolo gie s, th ey o fte n h ave a n a d ap ta b le w ork fo rc e th at ca n r e ad ily a d ju st to c h an ges in w ork p la ce d em an ds. T his m ake s w ork e rs in s e m ip erip hery n atio ns c o m petit iv e w it h th e l a b or fo rc e in co re natio ns, w hic h ca n ta ke lo nger to ad ju st to w ork fo rc e dem an ds beca u se of th ese natio ns’ b ure au cra cie s, h ig h er w ages, a n d h eav ily r e gu la te d s y ste m s. A g o od e xa m ple o f a s e m ip erip hery n atio n is B ra zil, w here t h e e co nom y is d iv e rsi ie d a cro ss a gric u lt u re , m an ufa ctu rin g, m in in g, a n d to uris m — all s u pporte d b y a s tr o ng, le x ib le w ork fo rc e . T he le ast p ow erfu l n atio ns fr o m th e p ersp ectiv e o f w orld -s y ste m s a n aly sis a re p erip hery n atio n s, s u ch a s Ja m aic a , C had , th e P hilip pin es, M ali, A fg h an is ta n , a n d H ondura s. T hese a re co untr ie s w it h w eak o r u nsta b le g o ve rn m en ts , a l im it e d w ork fo rc e in te rm s o f s iz e o r s k ill, a n d fe w n atu ra l re so urc e s to co ntr ib ute to g lo bal m ark e tp la ce d em an ds. P erip hery c o untr ie s a re t h e le ast e co nom ic a lly d iv e rsi ie d a n d th e le ast in dustr ia liz e d . F o r e xa m ple , K en ya , a p erip hery n atio n, is r e lia n t o n to uris m a n d it s o w n n atu ra l a gric u lt u re . It is v u ln era b le to e x te rn al fa cto rs s u ch a s d ro ugh t a n d t r a ve l t r e n ds, a n d it s s m all w ork fo rc e is p rim arily u nsk ille d . P erip hery n atio ns m ay b eco m e a re as o f in ve stm en t fo r c o re n atio ns if th ey p osse ss r a w m ate ria ls n ot a va ila b le in c o re c o untr ie s a n d/o r if th ey o ffe r c h eap la b or to e x tr a ct v a lu ab le lo ca l r e so urc e s. C om pan ie s in c o re n atio ns s u ch a s th e U nit e d S ta te s, th e U nit e d K in gd om , a n d F ra n ce o fte n lo ca te th eir m an ufa ctu rin g a n d in dustr ia l p ro ce sse s in p erip hery c o untr ie s t o t a ke a d va n ta ge o f c h eap la b or a n d r e la xe d la b or r ig h ts a n d e n vir o nm en ta l r e gu la tio ns ( W alle rste in , 2 004). M uch lik e in div id uals w ho e x p erie n ce so cia l m obilit y in a so cia l cla ss sy ste m , n atio ns ca n ga in o r lo se so cia l an d e co nom ic in lu en ce . F o r e xa m ple , a se m ip erip hery n atio n m ay ris e to co re s ta tu s w hen it s p ro ductiv it y , tr a d e, an d e co nom y b eco m e s tr o nger. Ja p an d id e xa ctly th is , o ve rc o m in g it s d eva sta tio n a t th e e n d o f W orld W ar II to r e ach c o re s ta tu s b y t h e e n d o f t h e 2 0th c e n tu ry. C onve rse ly , t h e f o rm er S o vie t U nio n p ro vid es a n e xa m ple o f h ow n atio ns c a n f a ll f r o m c o re t o s e m ip erip hery s ta tu s. T he p olit ic a l a n d e co nom ic c o lla p se o f c o m munis m in t h e 1 990s le d t h e S o vie t U nio n to b e d is m an tle d in to v a rio us s e p ara te n atio ns. In th e p ro ce ss, e ve n th e la rg est o f it s n atio n s ta te s, R ussia , s a n k to s e m ip erip hery s ta tu s. R ega rd le ss o f a n y p artic u la r natio n’s sta tu s, how eve r, th e gro w in g tr e n d to w ard in te rd ep en den ce am ong all natio ns persis ts as g lo baliz a tio n c o ntin ues t o im pact t h e w orld m ark e t. G lo b al C o rp ocra cy O th er so cio lo gis ts arg u e th at th e p ow er o f in div id ual n atio ns h as d im in is h ed w it h g lo baliz a tio n. T o day, a s C harle s D erb er ( 2 000, 2 003) n ote s, s o m e c o rp ora tio ns h ave m ore p ow er th an n atio ns. A cco rd in g t o D erb er, c o rp ora tio ns c o ntr o l m ost g o ve rn m en ts , in clu din g th at o f t h e U nit e d S ta te s. I n t h eir q uest f o r p ro it s , t h ey in lu en ce e le ctio ns b y c o ntr ib utin g to c a n did ate s a n d p olit ic a l o rg a n iz a tio ns to m ake su re b usin ess-fr ie n dly c a n did ate s w in o fic e . T hey a ls o in lu en ce p olic y b y u sin g lo bbyis ts to p ush fo r le gis la tio n th at w ill ben eit co rp ora te a gen das. T hey a ls o in lu en ce tr a d e a gre em en ts w it h o th er n atio ns, m akin g s u re t h at t h e r u le s b en eit c o rp ora tio ns ( D erb er, 2 000, 2 003). T he I n lu en ce o f t h e G lo b al W ork p la ce o n C u lt u re s a n d I n div id ual W ork ers O n th e m eso le ve l, th e in stit u tio naliz a tio n o f th e g lo baliz e d w ork p la ce c h alle n ges s o m e lo ng-s ta n din g n orm s r e ga rd in g t h e p re va le n ce o f W este rn iz a tio n , e sp ecia lly th e sp re ad o f A m eric a n cu lt u re , to o th er are as o f th e w orld . C u lt u ra l b oundarie s b etw een c o re , s e m ip erip hera l, a n d p erip hera l n atio ns h ave b eco m e in cre asin gly p oro us. N atio nal c u lt u re s 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 1 4/4 8 d o n ot in lu en ce o ne a n oth er e q ually , h ow eve r. T he m ost p ow erfu l e co nom ic n atio ns te n d to h ave th e m ost cu lt u ra l – i n lu en ce w hen n atio ns d o b usin ess w it h o ne a n oth er. T he in lu en ce o f M cD onald ’s , w it h h ead quarte rs in Illin ois a n d r e sta u ra n ts in 1 19 c o untr ie s, is a p rim e e xa m ple . C oca -C ola , b ase d in A tla n ta , G eo rg ia , a n d S ta rb uck s, w it h h ead quarte rs i n S eattle , W ash in gto n, a re tw o o th er e xa m ple s o f o rg a n iz a tio ns fo unded in a n d r u n fr o m th e U nit e d S ta te s th at h ave g lo bal m ark e ts . T o day b oth U .S .- b ase d g lo bal b usin esse s a n d s o cia l m ed ia s u ch a s Y o uTu be, F ace b ook, In sta gra m , a n d – T w it te r o ffe r u npre ce d en te d a cce ss t o A m eric a n c u lt u re a n d s o cia liz a tio n. O n th e m ic ro le ve l, w ork e rs in th e U nit e d S ta te s h ave b eco m e m ore a w are o f h ow A m eric a n e n ga gem en t w it h o th er c o untr ie s im pacts jo bs, b oth d om estic a lly a n d a b ro ad . T his c a n c a u se w ork e rs to fe ar th at th eir jo bs w ill b e m ove d to o th er c o untr ie s t h at c a n p ro vid e c h eap er la b or o r b e t a ke n b y im mig ra n ts w illin g t o w ork f o r lo w er w ages. O n th e o th er h an d, a glo baliz e d w ork fo rc e m ay als o b e vie w ed as a so urc e o f gro w th an d o pportu nit y fo r th e re la tiv e ly fe w e m plo ye es w ho h ave t h e m ean s a n d t h e d esir e t o w ork w it h p eo ple in o th er c o untr ie s, t r a ve l, o r r e lo ca te . 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 1 5/4 8 F ig u re 3 .4 : T he b usin ess c y cle T he b usin ess c y cle m ove s u p a n d d ow n, f r o m p erio d s o f g ro w th t o p erio d s o f c o n tr a ctio n . 3 .4 T he G re at R ece ssio n a n d t h e C u rre n t J o b M ark et A ddin g to em plo ye e co nce rn s o ve r o uts o urc in g, o ffs h orin g (s e n din g jo bs o ve rse as to d im in is h la b or co sts ), an d a u to m atio n o f jo b fu nctio ns is th e fa llo ut fr o m r e ce n t e co nom ic d is a ste rs. F o r e xa m ple , th e G re at R ece ssio n o f 2 007– 2 009 a ffe cte d e ve ry c o untr y in th e w orld th at d oes b usin ess w it h — or d ep en ds o n a id fr o m — th e U nit e d S ta te s, a s th e U .S . e co nom y s h ra n k b y $ 3 00 b illio n f r o m 2 008 t o 2 009 ( W orld B an k, 2 015) a n d 8 .8 m illio n jo bs w ere lo st ( G oodm an & M an ce , 2 011). A r e ce ssio n is a c o ntr a ctio n o f g ro ss d om estic p ro duct th at la sts 6 m onth s o r m ore . A lt h ough th e G re at R ece ssio n o fic ia lly e n ded in 2 009, t h e U .S . e co nom y h as g ro w n v e ry s lo w ly s in ce t h en , a n d m an y E u ro pean n atio ns s u ch a s F ra n ce , S p ain , a n d I ta ly a re s till m ir e d in s lo w -g ro w th e co nom ie s w it h v e ry h ig h u nem plo ym en t r a te s. C au se s a n d C o n se q uen ce s o f R ece ssio n s A s d eva sta tin g a s th e G re at R ece ssio n w as, it w as n ot u niq ue. E co nom ic r e ce ssio ns a ctu ally h ap pen q uit e o fte n , a n d t h ere h ave b een m ore t h an a d oze n r e ce ssio ns in t h e U nit e d S ta te s s in ce t h e G re at D ep re ssio n o f t h e 1 930s. U ndersta n din g h ow re ce ssio ns h ap pen re q uir e s fa m ilia rit y w it h so m e b asic eco nom ic c o nce p ts . A co untr y ’s gro ss d om estic p ro duct ( G D P) a n d o th er fa cto rs d ete rm in e th e h ealt h o f a n e co nom y. G D P is th e to ta l m ark e t v a lu e o f g o ods p ro duce d a n d s e rv ic e s r e n dere d d urin g a p artic u la r tim e p erio d. B eca u se th e v a lu e o f m oney c h an ges w it h in la tio n, e co nom is ts c re ate a b ase lin e t o d ete rm in e t h e v a lu e o f g o ods a n d s e rv ic e s ( h ow m uch it c o sts to b uy a c e rta in a m ount o f g o ods a n d s e rv ic e s a t a c e rta in tim e). W hen c o m pare d to th e b ase lin e, G D P is c o nsid ere d to b e th e r e a l , o r a ctu al, m easu re o f t h e m ark e t v a lu e o f a c o untr y ’s g o ods a n d s e rv ic e s, in clu din g e x p orts a n d im ports . E xp orts a re a d ded a n d i m ports su btr a cte d fr o m th e G D P. R eal G D P in th e U nit e d Sta te s in cre ase d 1 .9 % in 2 013, m ean in g th e co untr y ’s e co nom y g re w 1 .9 % f r o m 2 012 t o 2 013. B usin ess c y cle s c o nsis t o f th e e co nom y’s g ro w th a n d c o ntr a ctio ns a s m easu re d b y r e al G D P. C ontr a ctio ns in dic a te a r e d uctio n in th e g o ods a n d s e rv ic e s p ro duce d , a n d g ro w th in dic a te s t h at m ore a re p ro duce d ( s e e F ig u re 3 .4 ). C ontr a ctio ns le ad to a s lo w dow n in th e p ro ductio n o f go ods an d se rv ic e s an d ca n re su lt fr o m a va rie ty of fa cto rs, i n clu din g natu ra l dis a ste rs, w ar, an d polit ic a l decis io ns to ra is e i n te re st ra te s, co ntr o l in la tio n, o r re d uce th e exch an ge of go ods b etw een n atio ns. O il p ric e s h ave a str o ng in lu en ce on alm ost eve ry in dustr y an d e co nom ic a ctiv it y in th e w orld , fr o m th e c o st o f p ro ducin g e le ctr ic it y a n d m ate ria ls fo r m an ufa ctu rin g an d agric u lt u re to th e sa le an d t r a n sp orta tio n of go ods. Reco rd -h ig h oil pric e s ca n re su lt fr o m d if fe re n t fa cto rs, in clu din g th e in cre ase d d em an d fo r p etr o le u m in C hin a a n d In dia , b oth b urg eo nin g n atio ns w it h tw o o f th e w orld ’s l a rg est p opula tio ns ( W ein er, 2 007), a n d p olit ic a l t u rm oil in t h e M id dle E ast ( B yrt, 2 011). A r is e in o il p ric e s in cre ase s a ll k in ds o f c o nsu m er a n d b usin ess co sts , sin ce th e co st o f p ro ducin g an d tr a n sp ortin g m ate ria ls a n d g o ods in cre ase s (D r. E co n, 2 007). T hus, a h ik e in o il p ric e s c a n r a is e th e c o st o f g a s, fo od, a n d b asic g o ods, fo rc in g fa m ilie s to c u t o r lim it th eir e x p en se s. T a b le 3 .2 r e ve als t h e im pact o f t h e p ric e o f o il o n g a s p ric e s a t t h e p um p. T a ble 3 .2 : C o st o f o il r e le cte d a t t h e p um p i n t h e U nit e d S ta te s Y ea r P ric e p er b arre l P ric e p er g a llo n a t t h e p um p 1 998 $ 1 7.1 0 $ 1 .4 6 2 011 $ 8 6.8 4 $ 3 .5 1 2 013 $ 9 1.5 4 $ 3 .6 5 N ote . A nnual a ve ra ge p ric e s a n d a d ju ste d f o r in la tio n . 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 1 6/4 8 S ource s : M cM ahon, 2 012, 2 014. H ig h g a s p ric e s, in tu rn , le ad c o nsu m ers to m odif y th eir b eh av io rs in s e ve ra l w ay s, s u ch a s d riv in g le ss o r u sin g m ore f u el- e fic ie n t v e h ic le s; u sin g a lt e rn ativ e m odes o f tr a n sp orta tio n; r e d ucin g th e n um ber o f tr ip s to s to re s o r c h oosin g s to re s base d on pro xim it y ; re d ucin g le is u re tr a ve l; an d cu ttin g sp en din g on lu xu ry go ods, re sta u ra n ts , an d e n te rta in m en t ( H uffm an , 2 012). A ll o f t h ese r e actio ns h ave a d ra m atic e ffe ct o n t h e o ve ra ll e co nom y. C om pan ie s o fte n r e act to e co nom ic s lo w dow ns b y p ostp onin g p la n ned g ro w th a n d h ir in g, d ecre asin g p ro ductio n, o r l a y in g o ff w ork e rs a n d in cre asin g t h e w ork lo ad s o f t h ose w ho r e m ain ( D ic k le r, 2 009). In a d dit io n, in cre ase s in th e p ric e o f g a s, e le ctr ic it y , a n d o th er u tilit ie s p ro m pt c o m pan ie s t o lim it t h eir h ours o f o pera tio n, r e d uce th e s iz e o f fa cilit ie s, a n d r e str ic t o r s tr e am lin e w ork lo w s. T hese a ctio ns u su ally co nstr ic t w ork fo rc e n um bers a n d d am pen m ora le , b eca u se e m plo ye es fe ar th eir c o m pan y w ill d ecre ase o r e lim in ate r a is e s, b onuse s, a n d p erk s o r th at th ey w ill lo se th eir jo bs a lt o geth er. A noth er im porta n t w ay in w hic h r is in g o il p ric e s a ffe ct th e m odern e co nom y is th e e m erg en ce o f a n a lt e rn ativ e -e n erg y i n dustr y. In ve stm en t in r e se arc h , m an ufa ctu rin g, a n d sa le s o f te ch nolo gy to g en era te so la r p ow er, w in d p ow er, a n d o th er t y p es o f a lt e rn ativ e e n erg y h as in cre ase d t h e n eed f o r a w ork fo rc e w it h n ew s k ill s e ts . T hese a ctiv it ie s a re p art o f t h e so -c a lle d g re en eco n om y , w hic h in clu des ele ctr ic au to m obile s (p ow ere d w it h em is sio n-fr e e ele ctr ic it y ), o rg a n ic f a rm in g, a n d r e cy clin g. T he r a p id ly in cre asin g n eed to in d a lt e rn ativ e s to fo ssil fu els b eca u se o f g lo bal c lim ate c h an ge h as a ls o u ndersco re d g ro w th in in dustr ie s th at w ill c re ate n ew e m plo ym en t o pportu nit ie s fo r m an y k in ds o f w ork e rs, f r o m e n gin eers a n d s cie n tis ts to te ch nic ia n s a n d s a le s r e p re se n ta tiv e s (In te rg o ve rn m en ta l P an el o n C lim ate C han ge, 2 013a). W hat W ould Y o u D o? D ealin g W it h D is a ste rs a n d t h e C o st o f E nerg y S u ppose y o u a re a sm all b usin ess o w ner w ho u se s n atu ra l g a s to ru n y o ur co m pan y. A fr a ck in g (h yd ra u lic f r a ctu rin g o f s h ale r o ck b y t h e h ig h -p re ssu re in je ctio n o f w ate r a n d c h em ic a ls t o r e le ase g a s a n d o il) d is a ste r h as j u st h alt e d m uch o f t h e g a s e x tr a ctio n in th e U nit e d S ta te s, a n d th e c o st o f g a s h as s k yro ck e te d . W hat d o y o u d o t o c o pe w it h t h is d ile m ma? H ow d id y o u m ake y o ur d ecis io ns? U nem plo y m en t D urin g R ece ssio n s S in ce u nem plo ym en t is a lw ay s a m ajo r c o nce rn d urin g a r e ce ssio n, u nem plo ym en t r a te s a re u se d a s o ne m easu re o f it s s e ve rit y . D urin g a r e ce ssio n, e m plo ye rs tr y to r e d uce c o sts w hile s u sta in in g p ro it s . T hey m ay r e p la ce e m plo ye es b y a u to m atin g ta sk s o r in cre asin g w ork lo ad s fo r a fe w e m plo ye es a n d la y in g o ff o th ers. If th ese m easu re s fa il, la rg e c o m pan ie s m ay d ow nsiz e b y s e llin g o ff s m alle r s u bsid ia rie s, a n d s m alle r c o m pan ie s m ay s h ut d ow n a ll to geth er. A ll o f t h ese m easu re s c o ntr ib ute t o u nem plo ym en t. D is p la ce d w ork e rs o fte n h ave a d if ic u lt t im e in din g e m plo ym en t d urin g a r e ce ssio n. H ow eve r, u nem plo ym en t is r a re ly e q ual a cro ss th e b oard . C erta in g ro ups o f w ork e rs a re m ore v u ln era b le to s lu m ps in b usin ess c y cle s th an o th ers. F o r e xa m ple , t h e u nem plo ym en t r a te f o r B la ck s is c o nsis te n tly d ouble t h e u nem plo ym en t r a te f o r W hit e s. I n M arc h 2 014 t h e u nem plo ym en t r a te w as 5 .3 % fo r W hit e A m eric a n s a n d 1 1.4 % fo r B la ck A m eric a n s (B LS, 2 014i) . D urin g r e ce ssio ns, a lr e ad y h ig h r a te s o f u nem plo ym en t f o r t h ese g ro ups b eco m e e ve n h ig h er. Y o ung e n tr y -le ve l w ork e rs a ls o te n d to b e d is p ro portio nate ly a ffe cte d b y re ce ssio nal jo b r e d uctio n. B eca u se th ese w ork e rs h ave le ss e x p erie n ce a n d f e w er d eve lo ped s k ills , e m plo ye rs m ay p erc e iv e t h em a s le ss p ro ductiv e t h an w ork e rs w it h e x p erie n ce . H ow eve r, s o m e c o m pan ie s m ay o pt to c u t c o sts b y re p la cin g e x p erie n ce d w ork e rs w it h e n tr y -le ve l o nes w ho c a n b e p aid m uch le ss. T he t im e it t a ke s t o s e cu re a n oth er jo b a fte r a p erio d o f u nem plo ym en t is a n e sse n tia l fa cto r u nderly in g th e p ersis te n ce o f u nem plo ym en t r a te s. T he lo nger a w ork e r is u nem plo ye d , t h e m ore lik e ly h e o r s h e w ill r e m ain u nem plo ye d . In deed , o nly 1 1 p erc e n t o f t h e lo ng-te rm u nem plo ye d w ho w ere o ut o f w ork in a g iv e n m onth b etw een 2 008 a n d 2 012 w ere in 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 1 7/4 8 a ste ad y, fu ll- tim e jo b a ye ar la te r. E m plo ye rs d is crim in ate aga in st th e lo ng-te rm u nem plo ye d an d te n d to ig n ore a p plic a n ts w ho h ave b een o ut o f w ork fo r 6 m onth s o r m ore (K ru eger, C ra m er, & C ho, 2 014; O ’B rie n , 2 013). T his is p artic u la rly tr u e fo r w ork e rs w it h m in im al s k ills o r o ld er w ork e rs w ho m ay fa ce a ge d is crim in atio n in h ir in g. W hen a j o b s e arc h e x te n ds o ve r s e ve ra l m onth s, a s is c o m mon d urin g a r e ce ssio n, th e u nem plo ye d w ho h ave n ot k e p t u p w it h t h e n ew s k ills u se d in t h e m ark e tp la ce m ay b e le ss a p pealin g t o p ote n tia l e m plo ye rs. T here is a ls o a p sy ch olo gic a l c o st to e x te n ded u nem plo ym en t. D ep re ssio n a n d la ck o f c o nid en ce a re c o m mon a m ong p eo ple w ho a re u nem plo ye d f o r lo nger t h an s e ve ra l w eeks. A s m otiv a tio n p lu m mets a n d c o nid en ce e ro des, a p erso n’s u nem plo ym en t c a n b e e x te n ded e ve n f u rth er ( K ru eger e t a l., 2 014). U nem plo ym en t I n su ra n ce T he F ed era l– Sta te U nem plo ym en t C om pen sa tio n P ro gra m w as c re ate d b y t h e S o cia l S ecu rit y A ct o f 1 935 in r e sp onse to t h e d eva sta tin g e co nom ic c o ndit io ns o f t h e G re at D ep re ssio n. D urin g th at p erio d, m illio ns o f p eo ple w ho lo st th eir jo bs c o uld n ot a ffo rd g o ods a n d s e rv ic e s, w hic h c o ntr ib ute d to e ve n m ore la yo ffs a s c o m pan ie s w ere fo rc e d to g o o ut o f b usin ess fo r la ck o f c u sto m ers. T he u nem plo ym en t in su ra n ce p ro gra m w as d ev is e d w it h tw o o bje ctiv e s in m in d: to p ro vid e t e m pora ry a n d p artia l w age r e p la ce m en t t o e m plo ye es w ho lo st t h eir jo bs t h ro ugh n o fa u lt o f th eir o w n a n d to h elp s ta b iliz e t h e e co nom y d urin g r e ce ssio ns. T he U .S . D ep artm en t o f L ab or o ve rse es th e u nem plo ym en t in su ra n ce sy ste m , b ut each sta te ad m in is te rs it s o w n p ro gra m . I n o rd er t o q ualif y f o r u nem plo ym en t c o m pen sa tio n, a w ork e r m ust m eet th e s ta te ’s r e q uir e m en ts fo r e arn ed w ages a n d tim e w ork e d d urin g a n e sta b lis h ed p erio d. T his tim e fr a m e is c a lle d th e “ b ase p erio d.” In m ost s ta te s it is 1 y e ar p rio r t o t h e t im e a c la im is ile d . T he s e co nd b asic r e q uir e m en t is th at a n u nem plo ye d w ork e r m ust h ave b een la id o ff fo r a r e aso n b eyo nd h is o r c o ntr o l. W ork e rs c a n not r e ce iv e c o m pen sa tio n if th ey w ere ir e d fo r d ue c a u se , th ough t h e c rit e ria f o r d ue c a u se v a rie s a m ong s ta te s. U nem plo ym en t b en eit s a re c a lc u la te d a s a p erc e n ta ge o f t h e c la im an t’s e arn in gs o ve r th e m ost r e ce n t 5 2-w eek p erio d, u p to a m axim um a m ount th at v a rie s b y sta te . In 2 014 m axim um w eekly b en eit s ra n ged fr o m a h ig h o f $6 74 in M assa ch use tts to a lo w o f $ 2 35 in M is sis sip pi ( D oyle , 2 014). B en eit s c a n b e p aid fo r a m axim um o f 2 6 w eeks in m ost s ta te s, b ut a d dit io nal w eeks o f b en eit s , o r e x te n ded b en eit s , h ave b een m ad e a va ila b le d urin g tim es o f v e ry h ig h u nem plo ym en t. B en eit s a re s u bje ct t o f e d era l in co m e t a xe s a n d m ust b e r e p orte d o n th e r e cip ie n t’s fe d era l in co m e ta x r e tu rn ( U .S . D ep artm en t o f L ab or, 2 013). S o m e s ta te s h ave c u t u nem plo ym en t b en eit s in th e fa ce o f r is in g u nem plo ym en t. F o r e xa m ple , in 2 013 N orth C aro lin a r e d uce d b en eit s a n d t h e le n gth o f t im e b en eit s c a n b e r e ce iv e d a s u nem plo ym en t r e m ain ed p ersis te n t ( P lu m er, 2 014). S o a s th e n eed s o f w ork e rs in cre ase d , th eir b en eit s w ere c u t (P lu m er, 2 014). S u ch p olic ie s in ev it a b ly ra is e p ove rty r a te s. F ig u re 3 .5 in dic a te s h ow lo ng u nem plo ym en t b en eit s c a n b e r e ce iv e d a cro ss t h e U nit e d S ta te s. F ig u re 3 .5 : M axim um l e n gth o f u nem plo y m en t b en eit s b y s ta te L en gth o f u nem plo y m en t b en eit s v a ry b y s ta te . 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 1 8/4 8 S ource : C o ngre s sio nal R es ea rch S er v ic e , 2 015. U nem plo ym en t in su ra n ce beca m e a sp ecia l to pic of deb ate w hen unem plo ym en t ra te s sp ik e d durin g th e G re at R ece ssio n. In Ju ly 2 010 C ongre ss an d P re sid en t B ara ck O bam a agre ed to ex te n d u nem plo ym en t co ve ra ge, b ut in D ece m ber 2 013 t h e R ep ublic a n -le d H ouse o f R ep re se n ta tiv e s d id n ot r e n ew th e e x te n sio n, c u ttin g o ff a id to 1 .3 m illio n u nem plo ye d w ork e rs ( U .S . D ep artm en t o f L ab or, 2 014e). S o th e N orth C aro lin a e xa m ple w as fo llo w ed b y a c u t-o ff o f b en eit s a t t h e f e d era l le ve l le ss t h an a y e ar la te r, in dic a tin g a lim it to th e p atie n ce o f s o m e p olit ic a l le ad ers in r e tu rn in g w ork e rs b ack t o w ork a fte r a s ig n i ic a n t e co nom ic s e tb ack . T he R ea l E sta te B ubble A lt h ough e co nom ic c y cle s o f e x p an sio n a n d c o ntr a ctio n a re a n orm al p art o f m odern c a p it a lis t e co nom ie s, s p ecu la tiv e b ubble s c a n le ad to w hat is k n ow n a s th e b oom –b u st c yc le . S p ecu la tiv e b ubble s e x is t w hen th e p ric e o f a g o od o r s e rv ic e d oes n ot m atc h it s fu ndam en ta l v a lu e. F o r e xa m ple , d urin g th e so -c a lle d d ot-c o m b oom o f th e la te 1 990s, I n te rn et c o m pan ie s w it h a lm ost n o a sse ts o r r e ve n ue s a w th eir s to ck p ric e s c lim b m uch h ig h er th an th ey s h ould h ave , g iv e n th e c o m pan ie s’ r e al w orth ( R ya n , 2 010). In th e p ast 4 d eca d es, th ere h ave b een s e ve ra l s p ecu la tiv e b ubble s th at h ave le d t o p erio ds o f r a p id g ro w th ( b oom ) f o llo w ed b y p ro lo nged r e ce ssio n ( b ust) . R ough ly a d eca d e a fte r th e d ot-c o m s p ecu la tiv e b ubble g ave w ay to o ne r e ce ssio n, th e b urstin g o f a r e al e sta te b ubble b eca m e t h e le ad in g c a u se o f t h e G re at R ece ssio n ( P o sn er, 2 009). T he r e al e sta te b ubble b ega n t o fo rm in th e 1 990s a n d w as fu ele d b y re la xe d le n din g p ra ctic e s an d th e in ve n tio n o f m ortg a ge d eriv a tiv e s m ad e p ossib le by in su fic ie n t r e gu la tio n ( G era rd i & W ille n , 2 008). ( A d eriv a tiv e is a in an cia l in str u m en t p rim arily u se d to r e d uce a ir m ’s in ve stm en t r is k b y t r a n sfe rrin g it t o a n oth er p arty in r e tu rn f o r e it h er t h e a ssu m ptio n o f s o m e o th er k in d o f r is k o r c a sh p ay m en t.) S u bprim e m ortg a ges a llo w ed le n ders to e x te n d lo an s to h om e b uye rs w it h lit tle o r n o d ow n p ay m en t, p oor cre d it s co re s, a n d m in im al e v id en ce o f in co m e. T he t e rm s u bprim e r e fe rs t o t h e c re d it r a tin gs o f t h e b orro w ers, w ho te n ded to b e m in orit ie s a n d lo w -in co m e w ork e rs. H om e b uye rs to ok o n s u bprim e m ortg a ges, a ssu m in g th at in cre asin g e q uit y in t h eir h om es w ould a llo w t h em t o r e in an ce th eir lo an s to m an ageab le m onth ly m ortg a ge r a te s b efo re h ig h er p ay m en ts c a m e d ue ( G era rd i & W ille n , 2 008). W hen r e al e sta te p ric e s b ega n t o p la te au , m ore a n d m ore b uye rs b ega n t o d efa u lt o n t h eir lo an s, b eca u se th e lo an s h ad b een s tr u ctu re d to a ssu m e c o nsis te n t g ro w th in h om e p ric e s. T he re su lt a n t d ra m atic in cre ase in m onth ly p ay m en ts c a u se d m illio ns o f h om e o w ners to g o in to fo re clo su re , th ere b y lo sin g th eir h om es a n d d ecim atin g th eir c re d it s co re s. F o r m an y lo w – a n d m odera te -in co m e h om eo w ners, t h eir h ouse s w ere n ow w orth le ss th an w hat w as o w ed , a n d a g o od m an y f o und t h em se lv e s u nem plo ye d a s w ell, w re akin g e co nom ic c a ta str o phe th ro ugh out th e m id dle a n d lo w er c la sse s. M illio ns o f p re v io usly s o lv e n t A m eric a n s s lip ped in to p ove rty d urin g th e y e ars fo llo w in g th e c o lla p se o f th e r e al e sta te b ubble ( P o sn er, 2 009). T his d eve lo pm en t le d t o a m ark e t b ust a n d a c a sca d in g in an cia l c o lla p se . 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 1 9/4 8 A s in an cia l in stit u tio ns f a ile d , c a p it a l f u ndin g f o r b usin esse s w as lo st, c a u sin g a r ip ple e ffe ct o f b usin ess f a ilu re s. I n t u rn , a s m ore a n d m ore b usin esse s f a ile d , m illio ns o f w ork e rs lo st t h eir jo bs. L ate in P re sid en t G eo rg e W . B ush ’s s e co nd t e rm , t h e U .S . g o ve rn m en t s te p ped in w it h th e T ro uble d A sse t R elie f P ro gra m ( T A RP), a n O cto ber 2 008 p ro gra m d esig n ed to p ro p u p fa ilin g in an cia l in stit u tio ns to p re ve n t th e n atio nal e co nom y’s co m ple te co lla p se . T hough it su cce ed ed , th is r e m ed y c o uld n ot p re ve n t a w id esp re ad e co nom ic b ust. T he G re at R ece ssio n, w hic h f o llo w ed t h is in an cia l c ris is , r e su lt e d in a s iz a b le in cre ase in t h e n um ber o f A m eric a n s liv in g b elo w t h e p ove rty lin e. I n 2 013 a p pro xim ate ly 1 4.5 % o f A m eric a n s ( 4 5.3 m illio n p eo ple ) liv e d in p ove rty , a n in cre ase o f 2 % ( 8 m illio n p eo ple ) f r o m 2 007, im med ia te ly b efo re t h e o nse t o f th e G re at R ece ssio n ( D eN ava s-W alt & P ro cto r, 2 014; – D eN ava s-W alt , P ro cto r, & S m it h , 2 008). B eca u se o f t h e c lo su re o f in an cia l in stit u tio ns a n d th e m assiv e d ow ntu rn in th e s to ck m ark e t, m an y f a m ilie s t o ok a la rg e lo ss o n t h eir in ve stm en ts . H ouse h old n et w orth — th e d if fe re n ce b etw een a sse ts a n d d eb ts — fe ll 4 3% , fr o m $ 9 8,8 72 to $ 5 6,3 35, b etw een 2 007 a n d 2 013 (B ern ase k, 2 014). A lo ng w it h th is lo ss o f w ealt h c a m e h ig h u nem plo ym en t r a te s, w hic h p eake d a t 1 0% , th e h ig h est r a te in 2 6 y e ars. M an y fa m ilie s co uld n ot a ffo rd to p ay fo r th eir h ousin g, h ealt h ca re , o r o th er b asic n ece ssit ie s (N orth w este rn In stit u te fo r P o lic y R ese arc h , 2 014). A s b usin esse s str u ggle d to sta y so lv e n t, w ork e rs w ho re m ain ed em plo ye d w ere ex p ecte d to ad ap t as w ell. So m e b usin esse s a n d m an y g o ve rn m en t o fic e s in it ia te d u npaid fu rlo ugh d ay s, c u ttin g th e w ork s ch ed ule fo r th e e m plo ye e w hile r e d ucin g p ay ro ll a m ounts . O th er e m plo ye es to ok p ay c u ts , e it h er b y to le ra tin g s a la ry r e d uctio ns o r b y m ovin g to p art-tim e s ch ed ule s. B y th e fo urth q uarte r o f 2 010, th e G D P r e tu rn ed to w here it w as p rio r to th e r e ce ssio n o f 2 008. M an y o f th e la rg er c o rp ora tio ns r e co uped lo st p ro it s , a n d s m all b usin esse s th at s u rv iv e d th e in it ia l h it o f th e r e ce ssio n s lo w ly b ega n to t u rn p ro it s a ga in . T he u pper c la ss b ounce d b ack th e b est, a ctu ally g a in in g w ealt h , b ut m ost A m eric a n s h ave n ot y e t r e co ve re d . F o r e xa m ple , w here as th e w ealt h o f th e to p 7 % r o se b y 2 8% b etw een 2 009 a n d 2 011, th e w ealt h o f th e b otto m 9 3% o f A m eric a n s d ro pped 4 % ( F ry & T ay lo r, 2 013). U nem plo ym en t le ve ls a ls o r e m ain h ig h . T he p erc e n ta ge o f A m eric a n s a ge 1 6 o r o ld er in th e la b or fo rc e d ro pped fr o m 6 6.1 % in 2 007 t o 6 3% in 2 014 ( B LS, 2 014f). T his m ean s th at th e c yclic a l u nem plo ym en t , o r u nem plo ym en t c a u se d b y a t e m pora ry s it u atio n, la ste d f a r b eyo nd t h e r e ce ssio n in w hic h it b ega n , to b eco m e s tr u ctu ra l u nem plo ym en t . C om pan ie s l e arn ed h ow t o g et b y w it h f e w er e m plo ye es, a n d m an y c o ntin ue t o o pera te w it h f e w er e m plo ye es t h an b efo re t h e G re at R ece ssio n. R ed ucin g la b or c o sts is n ot a n e asy t a sk fo r c o m pan ie s, a n d m assiv e la yo ffs h ave d eva sta tin g e ffe cts o n th e m ora le a n d p ro ductiv it y o f th e w ork e rs w ho a re k e p t in e m plo ym en t. H um an r e so urc e s e x p erts r e co m men d s e ve ra l s tr a te gie s fo r d ealin g w it h t h e u nce rta in ty o f a r e ce ssio n: K eep e m plo ye es in fo rm ed o f th e c o m pan y’s la b or s it u atio n, m ake s u re th ey r e m ain b usy, a n d im ple m en t o th er m easu re s a im ed a t in cre asin g t r u st in m an agem en t a n d c o m mit m en t to th e c o m pan y, s u ch as activ e ly lis te n in g to work e r’s co nce rn s an d re co gn iz in g an d re w ard in g th eir acco m plis h m en ts ( M ore b usin ess.c o m , 2 009). T he u ps a n d d ow ns o f th e e co nom y a re n ot th e o nly c h alle n ges th at th re ate n th e su rv iv a l o f b usin esse s a n d o th er e m plo ye rs. I n a n in cre asin gly d iv e rse n atio nal c o nte x t, e m plo ye rs m ust a d opt n ew s tr a te gie s to th riv e . In C hap te r 4 w e w ill lo ok a t a n oth er w ork p la ce m an agem en t is su e in th e w ork p la ce r e la te d to s o cio eco nom ic tr e n ds: h ow to e ffe ctiv e ly c re ate a n d m an age a d iv e rse w ork fo rc e . W hat W ould Y o u D o? C o m petin g W it h C o m pute rs S u ppose y o u a re a n o ut-o f-w ork p ara le ga l. Y o ur la w ir m h ad to c u t c o sts d urin g th e G re at R ece ssio n, s o y o u w ere la id o ff. Y o u w ould lik e t o in d w ork a t a n oth er ir m , b ut y o u in cre asin gly in d th at c o m pute r p ro gra m s n ow p erfo rm m ost o f th e ta sk s y o u u se d to d o. Y o u h ave b een lo okin g fo r w ork fo r 5 m onth s w it h out s u cce ss, a n d y o ur u nem plo ym en t in su ra n ce , w hic h w as n ot e ve n e n ough t o p ay a ll y o ur b ills , w ill b e c u t o ff s o on. W hat d o y o u d o? 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 2 0/4 8 S p otlig h t o n W ork p la ce R ese arc h : S o cio lo gy S tu den ts a t S a n J o se S ta te R ais e d t h e M in im um W age I n t h e s p rin g o f 2 011, a g ro up o f w ork in g c la ss s tu den ts in a s o cio lo gy c o urse a t S an J o se S ta te U niv e rsit y a p plie d t h eir c o urse w ork to a p ublic is su e w it h w hic h lo w -in co m e w ork e rs a re v e ry fa m ilia r: th e c h alle n ge o f liv in g o ff w ages e arn ed a t a m in im um w age jo b. C alif o rn ia ’s $ 8 .0 0 m in im um w age w as h ig h er th an th e fe d era l m in im um w age o f $ 7 .2 5, b ut it s till w as n ot e n ough to liv e o n in S an Jo se . S an Jo se n eed ed it s o w n m in im um w age th at r e le cte d t h e h ig h c o st o f liv in g in t h e S ilic o n V alle y c it y . S tu den ts , w ho h ad f a ce d a 1 41% in cre ase in tu it io n c o sts o ve r a 3 -y e ar p erio d o n to p o f b asic liv in g e x p en se s, k n ew th is a ll to o w ell— 80% o f th e s tu den ts in th e c la ss w ork e d a t le ast 3 0 h ours a w eek b ut s till s tr u ggle d t o p ay t h eir b ills . T here fo re , s tu den ts d ecid ed to tr y to r a is e S an Jo se ’s m in im um w age. T he s tu den ts c o nducte d r e se arc h o n th e i m pact o f m in im um w age in c it ie s lik e S an ta F e, S an F ra n cis co , a n d W ash in gto n, D .C ., a n d r e ach ed o ut to g ro ups s u ch a s S acre d H eart C om munit y C hurc h a n d th e N AACP. E ve n tu ally , th ey g o t in to uch w it h C in dy C have z fr o m t h e S o uth B ay L ab or C ouncil, t h e le ad er o f a c o alit io n o f 9 0 u nio ns in th e a re a. T he u nio n le ad er w as s k e p tic a l a t ir st o f t h e g ro up’s c h an ce s o f s u cce ss a n d a sk e d t h e s tu den ts to c o nduct a p oll to g a u ge th e le ve l o f s u pport fo r s u ch a m easu re a m ong t h e r e sid en ts o f S an J o se . T he s tu den ts r a is e d $ 6 ,0 00 t o h ir e a p ollin g ir m to h elp s u rv e y S an Jo se re sid en ts ’ o pin io n o n th e m atte r. In d oin g so , th ey le arn ed th at 7 0% o f cit y re sid en ts fa vo re d an i n cre ase in t h e m in im um w age. T he u nio ns r e aliz e d t h ey h ad a w in nin g is su e o n t h eir h an ds a n d c o ntr ib ute d b oth fu ndin g a n d p eo ple w illin g to k n ock o n d oors in su pport o f a p ro pose d re fe re n dum (B allo t M easu re D ). T hey se cu re d fa r m ore th an th e n eed ed s ig n atu re s t o p ut t h e m easu re t o a v o te b y t h e c it y a n d c a m paig n ed e ffe ctiv e ly f o r it , g a in in g a llie s in lo ca l n onpro it ch urc h es, sy n ago gu es, an d m osq ues. D esp it e h eav y o pposit io n b y th e Silic o n V alle y C ham ber of C om merc e , t h e b ill p asse d , w it h th e in al o fic ia l v o te c o unt s h ow in g 6 0% o f v o te rs in fa vo r. T he m in im um w age w en t u p 2 5% t o $ 1 0, a n d f u rth er in cre ase s w ill b e a u to m atic a lly t ie d t o in la tio n. S ource s : H arris , P . L . ( 2 013, M arch 1 1). S an F ra ncis co C hro nic le : S tu den t c la ss p ro je cts le a ds t o m in im um w age ju m p. S JS U T od ay. R etr ie v ed f r o m h ttp s:/ /blo gs.s js u .e d u/to day/2013/sa n-fr a ncis co -c h ro nic le -s tu den t- c la ss-p ro je cts -le a ds-to -m in im um -w age-ju m p ( h ttp s:/ /b lo gs.s js u .e d u/to day /2 013/san – f r a n cis co -c h ro nic le -s tu den t-c la ss-p ro je cts -le ad s-t o -m in im um -w age-ju m p/) ; N ew ell, S . ( 2 012, N ov em ber 2 0). S JS U s tu den ts w ork t o r a is e S an J o se’s m in im um w age. D aily 4 9er. R etr ie v ed f r o m h ttp :/ /w ww.d aily 49er.c o m /new s/ 2012/11/20/sjs u -s tu den ts -w ork -to -r a is e-s a n-jo ses -m in im um -w age ( h ttp :/ /w ww.d aily 4 9er.c o m /n ew s/2 012/1 1/2 0/sjs u – s tu den ts -w ork -t o -r a is e-s an -jo ses-m in im um -w age) ; T hom pso n, G . ( 2 012, D ece m ber 1 7). H ow s tu den ts in S an J o se r a is ed t h e m in im um w age. T he N atio n . R etr ie v ed f r o m h ttp :/ /w ww.t h en atio n.c o m /artic le / 171510/how -s tu den ts -s a n-jo se-r a is ed -m in im um -w age ( h ttp :/ /w ww.t h en atio n.c o m /artic le /1 71510/h ow -s tu den ts -s an -jo se- r a is ed -m in im um -w age) 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 2 1/4 8 S u m mary a n d R eso u rc e s S u m mary S o cio eco nom ic t r e n ds a re e x te rn al s o cia l a n d e co nom ic f o rc e s t h at a ffe ct t h e n atu re o f t h e w ork p la ce . A ll s o cia l c la sse s in t h e U nit e d S ta te s h ave b een im pacte d b y t h e n atio n’s t r a n sit io n f r o m a n in dustr ia l t o a s e rv ic e -b ase d e co nom y o ve r t h e p ast 4 d eca d es. A cco rd in g t o c o nlic t t h eo ris ts , g lo baliz a tio n h as le d t o t h e s tr a ti ic a tio n o f n atio ns a n d a g lo bal e lit e . I t h as a ls o l e d t o h ig h le ve ls o f in eq ualit y w it h in s o cie tie s. T he G re at R ece ssio n h ad a d is p ro portio nate im pact o n p oor, w ork in g-c la ss, a n d m id dle -c la ss A m eric a n s. C ase S tu dy : W hy I n -N -O ut B urg e r P ay s M ore T he fo llo w in g e xce rp ts fr o m th e a rtic le “ W hy In -N -O ut B urg er P ay s M ore T han O th er F ast F o od Jo in ts ” d is cu ss w hy I n -N -O ut p ay s it s e m plo ye es a h ig h er-th an -m in im um w age. I n -N -O ut B urg er h as n o f r e eze rs. N o m ic ro w aves. N o h ea t la m ps. A n d I n -N -O ut h as b een q u ie tly g o in g a ga in st a n oth er t r e n d in t h e lo w -w age, lo w -b en eit f a st f o od in du str y: t h ey’r e p ayin g t h eir e m plo ye es m uch m ore t h an t h e in du str y s ta n dard .… T he A u stin s to re w ill e m plo y 5 0, a ll w it h a s ta rtin g w age o f $ 10.5 0 a n h ou r. ( T he c u rre n t m in im um w age is $ 7.2 5 a n h ou r, a n d h asn ’t b een r a is e d s in ce 2 009.) I n -N -O ut a ls o o ffe rs p aid v a ca tio n a n d s ic k t im e, e ve n f o r p art t im e w ork ers, a n d h ea lt h c a re f o r f u ll- t im e w ork ers. T here ’s a 4 01K r e tir e m en t p la n . A n d w hen y o u ’r e o n y o u r s h if t , y o u g et a f r e e m ea l. I n -N -O ut is n ’t t h e o n ly f a st f o od r e sta u ra n t d oin g t h is . P la ce s lik e P T err y’s a n d C hip otle a ls o o ffe r s ta rtin g p ay h ig her t h an m in im um w age. S o h ow d o t h ey m ake m on ey lik e t h is ? A ft e r a ll— am id t h e d eb ate o ve r r a is in g t h e m in im um w age, f a st f o od c o m pan ie s h ave a rg u ed t h ey’l l b e f o rce d t o r a is e p ric e s o r e m plo y f e w er p eo ple . C arl V an F le et, v ic e p re sid en t f o r p la n nin g a n d d evelo pm en t f o r I n -N -O ut B urg er, s a ys t h e c o m pan y h as t h e a dva n ta ge o f b ein g p riv a te a n d f a m ily -o w ned . I n -N -O ut d oesn ’t f r a n ch is e . A n d b y p ayin g m ore a n d o ffe rin g m ore b en eit s, it k eep s m ore o f it s e m plo ye es. D an ie l H am erm esh , e co n om ic s p ro fe sso r a t t h e U niv e rsit y o f T exa s a t A u stin , s a ys I n -N -O ut e n ds u p s a vin g m on ey b y s p en din g m ore t o r e ta in b ette r q u alit y w ork ers, w ho c a n m ake a lo n ger t e rm c o m mit m en t. “ It l e a ds m ore w ork ers t o b e a tta ch ed t o t h e c o m pan y,” h e s a ys. “ It a vo id s t r a in in g. I t a vo id s t h e c o st o f t u rn ove r.” … I n t h e m ea n tim e, I n -N -O ut’s m odel o f p ayin g m ore f o r b ette r w ork ers s e em s t o b e w ork in g f o r t h e c o m pan y. T he e m plo ye r t a kes it s t im e a n d d oesn ’t g o a ft e r t h e r a pid g ro w th o f o th er f a st f o od b u sin esse s. “ W e h ave d ete rm in ed t h at it ’s in t h e b est in te re sts o f o u r c o m pan y t o g ro w a lit tle m ore s lo w ly , a lit tle m ore c a u tio u sly ,” s a ys I n -N -O ut’s V an F le et. “ T his s lo w g ro w th r a te h as w ork ed f o r u s f o r 6 5 y e a rs, a n d w e’r e g o n na s tic k t o it .” T hin k A bou t I t: 1 . H ow d oes I n -N -O ut B urg er b en eit f r o m p ay in g it s w ork e rs m ore t h an t h e m in im um w age? 2 . W hat a re s o m e r e aso ns it is e asie r f o r I n -N -O ut B urg er t o p ay h ig h er w ages t h an s o m e o th er f a st-fo od r e sta u ra n ts ? ( H in t: P . T e rry ’s a n d C hip otle M ex ic a n G rill d o n ot f r a n ch is e t h eir s to re s e it h er.) 3 . I f y o u w ere s e ekin g a jo b in a f a st-fo od r e sta u ra n t, w hic h c h ain w ould y o u c h oose ? W ould it d ep en d o n t h e p osit io n y o u s o ugh t? W hy? 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 2 2/4 8 S ource : H en ry , T . ( 2 014). W hy I n -N -O ut B urg er p ays m ore t h an o th er f a st f o od jo in ts . K U T N ew s. R etr ie v ed f r o m h ttp :/ /k u t.o rg /p ost/ w hy-n -o ut-b urg er- p ay s -m ore -o th er-fa st-fo od-jo in ts ( h ttp :/ /k u t.o rg /p ost/ w hy-n -o ut-b urg er-p ay s -m ore -o th er-fa st-fo od-jo in ts ) D is cu ssio n Q uestio n s 1 . I n w hat w ay s h ave y o u b een im pacte d b y in stit u tio nal in eq ualit ie s in A m eric a n s o cie ty ? W hat a re s o m e o f t h e a d va n ta ges y o u h ave e x p erie n ce d b eca u se o f in eq ualit y w it h in t h e e d uca tio nal s y ste m in t h e U nit e d S ta te s? W hat a re s o m e o f t h e d is a d va n ta ges y o u h ave e x p erie n ce d ? 2 . H ow h as y o ur f a m ily a n d/o r y o ur lo ca l c o m munit y b een im pacte d b y t h e c h an ge f r o m a n in dustr ia l t o a s e rv ic e – b ase d U .S . e co nom y? 3 . D o y o u a gre e w it h C harle s D erb er t h at c o rp ora tio ns h ave b eco m e m ore p ow erfu l t h an g o ve rn m en ts ? D o y o u t h in k h is p ersp ectiv e a p plie s t o t h e U nit e d S ta te s? W hy o r w hy n ot? 4 . W hy d o y o u t h in k m an y e m plo ye rs t e n d t o ig n ore a p plic a tio ns f r o m t h e lo ng-te rm u nem plo ye d ? I f y o u w ere h ir in g, w ould y o u? W hy o r w hy n ot? A ddit io n al R eso u rc e s A n o ve rv ie w o f t h e a sce n t o f t h e 0 .0 1% in t h e U nit e d S ta te s h ttp :/ /w ww.t h ea tla n tic .c o m /b u sin ess/ a rc h iv e /2 014/0 2/th e-r is e -a n d-r is e -a n d-r is e -o f-t h e-0 01- perc e n t-in – a m eric a /2 83793 (h ttp :/ /w ww.t h eatla n tic .c o m /b usin ess/ arc h iv e /2 014/0 2/th e-r is e -a n d-r is e -a n d-r is e -o f-th e-0 01-p erc e n t-in – a m eric a/2 83793/) A rtic le s o n t h e G re at R ece ssio n a n d r e ce ssio ns in g en era l h ttp :/ /to p ic s.n ytim es.c o m /to p /re fe re n ce /tim esto p ic s/ su bje cts / r/ re ce ssio n _a n d_ d ep re ssio n /in dex .h tm l ( h ttp :/ /to pic s.n ytim es.c o m /to p/re fe re n ce /tim esto pic s/ su bje cts / r/ re ce ssio n_a n d_d ep re ssio n/in dex .h tm l) W orld -s y ste m s t h eo ry h ttp :/ /w eb .m it .e d u/esd .8 3/w ww/n ote b ook/W orld Sy ste m .p df ( h ttp :/ /w eb .m it .e d u/esd .8 3/w ww/n ote b ook/W orld Sy ste m .p df) h ttp :/ /so cio lo gy.e m ory.e d u/fa cu lt y /glo baliz a tio n /th eo rie s0 1.h tm l ( h ttp :/ /so cio lo gy.e m ory.e d u/fa cu lt y /glo b aliz atio n/th eo rie s0 1.h tm l) A n o ve rv ie w o f t h e W orld E co nom ic F o ru m ’s t o p 1 0 t r e n ds im pactin g g lo bal a n d r e gio nal e co nom ic , p olit ic a l, a n d s o cia l c h an ge h ttp :/ /w ww.f o rb es.c o m /sit e s/ lo u is c o lu m bu s/ 2 013/1 1/1 5/to p -t e n -t r e n ds-o f-2 014-fr o m -w orld -e co n om ic -fo ru m – u ndersc o re -t h e-n eed -fo r-c lo u d-s e cu rit y (h ttp :/ /w ww.f o rb es.c o m /sit e s/ lo uis c o lu m bus/ 2 013/1 1/1 5/to p-te n -tr e n ds-o f-2 014- f r o m -w orld -e co nom ic -fo ru m -u ndersc o re -th e-n eed -fo r-c lo ud-s e cu rit y /) K ey T erm s b oom –b u st c yc le c o re n atio n s c u lt u ra l a ttr ib u te s c u lt u ra l c a p it a l d em ogra p hic p ro ile s e co n om ic s ta tu s i n co m e i n stit u tio n aliz ed 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 2 3/4 8 m ed ia n i n co m e M cD on ald iz a tio n o ffs h orin g p erip hery n atio n s r e ce ssio n s e m ip erip hery n atio n s s o cia l c a p it a l s o cia l c la ss s o cia l s ta tu s s o cio eco n om ic t r e n ds s u per r ic h w ea lt h 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 2 4/4 8 L earn in g O bje ctiv e s B y t h e e n d o f t h is c h ap te r, y o u w ill b e a b le t o : O utlin e t h e c o m ponen ts o f w ork p la ce c u lt u re a n d d is cu ss h ow d om in an t c u lt u re s, s u bcu lt u re s, a n d c o unte rc u lt u re s in te ra ct in s o cie ty a n d in t h e w ork p la ce . E xp la in h ow d iv is io ns b etw een in -g ro ups a n d o ut-g ro ups c a n le ad t o d is crim in atio n in t h e w ork p la ce . G iv e e xa m ple s o f h ow r a cia l, e th nic , r e lig io us, a n d c u lt u ra l d iv e rsit y c o ntin ues t o g ro w in t h e U nit e d S ta te s a n d is e x p ecte d t o d o s o f o r t h e f o re se eab le f u tu re . D is cu ss w id ely d ocu m en te d in sta n ce s o f d is crim in atio n in t h e w ork p la ce b ase d o n s e x , g en der, a n d s e xu al o rie n ta tio n. D escrib e h ow p eo ple w it h d is a b ilit ie s s tr u ggle w it h d is crim in atio n in h ir in g a n d d ela y s in b ein g p ro vid ed r e aso nab le a cco m modatio ns. I llu str a te h ow e m plo ye rs a n d e m plo ye es c a n e x p an d t h eir c u lt u ra l c o m pete n cie s t o d im in is h p re ju dic e a n d d is crim in atio n in t h e w ork p la ce . 4 W ork p la ce C u lt u re a n d W ork fo rc e D iv e rsit y M onkey b usin es sim ages / iS to ck /T hin ksto ck 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 2 5/4 8 I n tr o ductio n E ach t im e y o u b egin a n ew jo b, it is n orm al to ta ke s o m e tim e to fa m ilia riz e y o urse lf w it h th e w ay th in gs a re d one a n d h ow o th ers b eh ave a t y o ur n ew w ork p la ce . T he t im e it t a ke s to a d ju st to y o ur n ew s e ttin g d ep en ds la rg ely o n h ow w ell y o ur o w n b ack g ro und a n d e x p erie n ce s m esh w it h th ose o f y o ur c o w ork e rs a n d w it h th e o ve ra ll c u lt u re o f y o ur n ew e m plo ye r. D o yo u in d it easy to u ndersta n d th e ru le s? D o yo u fe el acce p te d by an d co m fo rta b le aro und yo ur c o lle agu es? D o y o u h ave t o le arn t o u se u nfa m ilia r p ie ce s o f m ach in ery ? A re y o u e x p ecte d to c h an ge y o ur a p peara n ce ? I n th is c h ap te r, w e w ill e xa m in e w ork p la ce c u lt u re s a n d th e im pact o f r a cia l, e th nic , g en der, a n d d is a b ilit y d iv e rsit y o n t h e w ork p la ce . W e w ill a ls o d is cu ss w ay s t o p osit iv e ly a n d e ffe ctiv e ly h an dle is su es r e la te d t o s u ch d iv e rsit y . 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 2 6/4 8 F u se/ T hin ksto ck T he s y m bolic i n te ra ctio n is m p ersp ectiv e h elp s s o cio lo gis ts e x a m in e t h e w ork p la ce e x p erie n ce o n t h e m ic ro , o r i n div id ual, l e ve l. 4 .1 W ork p la ce C u lt u re T he c u lt u re o f a w ork p la ce c o m pris e s it s r u le s, v a lu es, a n d a rtif a cts (ta n gib le o bje cts su ch a s ca sh re gis te rs, slic e rs, u nif o rm s, d esk s, a n d c o m pute rs), a ll o f w hic h g o ve rn th e b eh av io r o f th e w ork fo rc e . R ule s re gu la te h ow a n d w hen e m plo ye es w ork . W ork p la ce r u le s c o ve r e ve ry th in g fr o m w heth er y o u h ave to p unch a tim e c a rd to h ow y o u c a rry o ut y o ur r e sp onsib ilit ie s ( fo r e xa m ple , h ow y o u g re et c u sto m ers, th e ta sk s y o u p erfo rm , w hen y o u c a n ta ke a b re ak, w hat c lo th es a n d p ro te ctiv e g ear y o u w ear, a n d s o o n). A n o rg a n iz a tio n’s va lu es als o gu id e ap pro pria te o n-th e-jo b b eh av io r. Fo r exa m ple , if te am work is hig h ly va lu ed , e m plo ye es w ill te n d to c o lla b ora te w it h o ne a n oth er. If p ro it is v a lu ed o ve r w ork e r sa fe ty , a ccid en ts m ay re su lt . A w ork p la ce ’s v a lu es h elp s h ap e it s r u le s a n d h ow t h ey a re e n fo rc e d a n d f o llo w ed . I n t u rn , t h e v a lu es a n d r u le s d ete rm in e h ow e m plo ye es c re ate a n d u se a rtif a cts in th e w ork p la ce . T o geth er, th ese a sp ects o f w ork p la ce c u lt u re a ffe ct w hat w e d o a n d h ow w e in te ra ct in t h e w ork p la ce . W ork a n d t h e M ic ro L eve l o f S o cio lo gic a l S tu dy A s dis cu sse d in C h ap te r 1 (h ttp :/ /co nte n t.t h uzele arn in g.c o m /b ooks/ A U SO C402.1 5.1 /se ctio ns/ n av p oin t-1 0# ch 01se c1 .4 ) , m acro a n d m eso le ve ls o f s o cio lo gic a l s tu dy fo cu s o n b ro ad v ie w s o f s o cia l s tr u ctu re s a n d tr e n ds. T heo rie s u se d to e xa m in e b ig -p ic tu re is su es in clu de t h e c o n lic t p ersp ectiv e , w hic h d escrib es r e la tio nsh ip s in t e rm s o f th e in eq ualit ie s th at e x is t b etw een s o cia l g ro ups; a n d t h e f u nctio n alis t p ersp ectiv e , w hic h d escrib es r e la tio nsh ip s b etw een g ro ups in te rm s o f t h eir in te rd ep en den ce a n d c o ntr ib utio n to s o cie ty ’s b ala n ce . In th is c h ap te r, w e e xa m in e th e m ic ro le ve l o f e x p erie n ce , o r t h e w ay in w hic h in div id uals c o nstr u ct t h eir s o cia l w orld , f r o m t h e p ersp ectiv e o f s y m bolic in te ra ctio n is m . S y m bolic in te ra ctio nis m th eo ry re q uir e s o bse rv in g so cia l b eh av io r a n d notin g in div id uals ’ perc e p tio n of th eir ex p erie n ce . Herb ert B lu m er ( 1 969) e sta b lis h ed t h re e p re m is e s o f s y m bolic in te ra ctio nis m b ase d o n o bse rv a tio n: ( a ) h um an s b eh ave a cco rd in g to th e m ea n in gs t h ey a ssig n to o bje cts a n d e ve n ts , (b ) m ean in gs are d eriv e d fr o m i n te ra ctio n s wit h oth ers, an d (c ) mean in gs re q uir e s u bje ctiv e i n te rp re ta tio n . An exa m in atio n of both work p la ce cu lt u re an d i n div id ual e x p erie n ce in t h e w ork p la ce in vo lv e s s tu dyin g th e a rra y o f m ean in gs in div id uals m ay b rin g t o a s it u atio n. I t is im porta n t to understa n d th at cu lt u ra l e x p erie n ce s affe ct w ork e rs’ in te rp re ta tio ns o f in te ra ctio ns a n d t h e m ean in gs t h ey a ssig n t o th em . F o r e xa m ple , a n e m plo ye e ra is e d in a s o cie ty th at va lu es t e am work m ay h ave d if ic u lt y d ealin g w it h a s u perv is o r w ho v a lu es c o m petit io n a n d p re fe rs h is e m plo ye rs to v ie w e ach o th er a s r iv a ls . W it h out b ein g a w are o f c u lt u ra l d if fe re n ce s, th e s u perv is o r m ay b e s u rp ris e d t o in d t h at t h is e m plo ye e in ds t h e w ork e n vir o nm en t f u ll o f u nco m fo rta b le a n d u nsa tis fy in g in te ra ctio ns. D om in an t C u lt u re s, S u bcu lt u re s, a n d C o u nte rc u lt u re s A w ork p la ce ’s c u lt u re g en era lly r e le cts a s o cie ty ’s d om in an t c u lt u re , w hic h is d ete rm in ed b y th e fu ndam en ta l c u lt u ra l t r a it s o f t h e g ro up w it h t h e m ost p ow er in t h at s o cie ty . F o r e xa m ple , W hit e A nglo –Saxo n P ro te sta n t c u lt u re h as b een th e d om in an t c u lt u re th ro ugh out U .S . h is to ry. A s a r e su lt , W hit e A nglo –Saxo n P ro te sta n t v a lu es te n d to in lu en ce m ajo r s o cia l n orm s o f A m eric a n w ork p la ce s (s u ch as th e cu lt u re of on-tim e arriv a ls an d m eetin gs), eve n th ough th e p erc e n ta ge o f A m eric a n s w it h th at r a cia l, e th nic , a n d r e lig io us b ack g ro und c o ntin ues to fa ll ( P ew F o ru m o n R elig io n & P ublic L if e , 2 008). T here m ay a ls o b e s u bcu lt u re s , g ro ups w it h c u lt u ra l t r a it s t h at d if fe r f r o m t h e d om in an t c u lt u re b ut d o n ot c o nlic t w it h i t . S u bcu lt u re s m ay b e d ein ed b y f a cto rs s u ch a s r e lig io n, g eo gra p hic lo ca tio n, a ge, o r e th nic it y . T he Je w is h a n d g ro w in g H is p an ic c o m munit ie s a re e xa m ple s o f A m eric a n s u bcu lt u re s. 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 2 7/4 8 V ie w P ic tu re s / U IG v ia G ett y I m ages G oogle c re a te d t h e G oogle y c u lt u re , w hic h e n co u ra ges e m plo ye es t o s p on ta n eo u sly s h are i d ea s o n w hit e b oard s t h at l in e o fic e w alls . G ro ups th at re je ct an d act in opposit io n to th e ru le s, va lu es, an d artif a cts of th e dom in an t cu lt u re co nstit u te c o u nte rc u lt u re s . C ounte rc u lt u re s in th e U nit e d S ta te s in clu de th e K u K lu x K la n , th e A m eric a n In dia n M ove m en t, a n d M orm on F u ndam en ta lis ts . S o m e o f th eir re sp ectiv e b elie fs o n W hit e su pre m acy, th e sa n ctit y o f tr e atie s m ad e w it h A m eric a n I n dia n s, a n d p oly g a m y r u n c o unte r t o t h e c o nte m pora ry d om in an t c u lt u re . T yp es o f W ork p la ce C u lt u re D om in an t c u lt u re s, s u bcu lt u re s, a n d c o unte rc u lt u re s a ll e x is t in w ork p la ce e n vir o nm en ts . T he d om in an t cu lt u re o f a w ork p la ce is c re ate d b y th e b le n d o f p ersp ectiv e s a n d v a lu es h eld b y m an agem en t a n d w ork e rs. A pple In c., p ro vid es a g o od e xa m ple o f h ow a s u bcu lt u re w it h s o m e d if fe re n t v a lu es a n d r u le s c a n b eco m e d om in an t in t h e w ork p la ce . W hen A pple w as fo unded in th e 1 970s, th e d om in an t w ork c u lt u re in th e U nit e d S ta te s r e le cte d e m plo ye es w ho w ere p rim arily m ale , W hit e , a n d c o lle ge e d uca te d . M ale p ro fe ssio nals w ere e x p ecte d to w ear d ark s u it s , w hit e s h ir ts , a n d tie s a n d t o b e c le an s h ave n a n d w ear t h eir h air s h ort. A s y o ung e n tr e p re n eu rs, A pple c o fo unders S te ve J o bs, S te ve W ozn ia k, a n d M ik e M ark ku la s o ugh t to a ttr a ct in nova tiv e a n d c re ativ e e m plo ye es to s u pport th eir v is io n o f th e n ew c o m pute r i n dustr y ( L in zm aye r, 2 004), s o th ey r e cru it e d e m plo ye es fr o m w hat w ere , a t th e tim e, s u bcu lt u re s in th e U nit e d S ta te s. T hese in clu ded w ork e rs w it h lo ng h air a n d b eard s, w ho th ough t je an s a n d T -s h ir ts w ere a cce p ta b le w ork a ttir e . M an y d id n ot h ave c o lle ge d egre es, b eca u se th ey h ad d ro pped o ut to e x p erim en t w it h b urg eo nin g h ard w are a n d s o ftw are t e ch nolo gy. T he A pple e m plo ye es c o nstit u te d a s u bcu lt u re in c o m paris o n to o th er d om in an t co rp ora te cu lt u re s, b ut t h ey b eca m e d om in an t a t A pple . N ote th at th e A pple e m plo ye es w ho w ore je an s to w ork a n d v a lu ed k n ow le d ge ove r ed uca tio nal degre es did not co nstit u te a c o unte rc u lt u re . T hey n eve r c h alle n ged t h e o ve ra ll v a lu es a n d r u le s o f b usin ess w orld b eh av io r, w hic h in clu de m akin g m oney th ro ugh h ard w ork a n d c o m petin g w it h o th er b usin esse s. In ste ad , th ey c h alle n ged a n d h elp ed c h an ge s o m e o f t h e le ss im porta n t v a lu es a n d r u le s in th e w orld o f h ig h -te ch b usin ess. F o r exa m ple , th ey h elp ed cre ate th e h ig h -te ch e co nom y’s n ow d om in an t v a lu e o f a p pre cia tin g s k ills o ve r d egre es a n d r u le s a n d a llo w in g p eo ple t o d re ss c a su ally a t w ork . I n te rn et g ia n t G oogle h as cre ate d a co rp ora te su bcu lt u re th at th e c o m pan y r e fe rs to a s “ G oogle y.” W hit e b oard s lin e th e h allw ay s, a n d e m plo ye es a re e n co ura ged to jo t d ow n id eas a s th ey p ass d ow n th e c o rrid ors. E m plo ye es h ave t im e e ach d ay t o w ork o n th eir o w n id eas, a n d th eir g o al is to e it h er fa il fa st— so th at tim e is n ot w aste d o n i d eas th at w ill n ot g ro w th e c o m pan y— or s u cce ed . E ach o f G oogle ’s b uild in gs h as a n e xe cu tiv e c h ef w ho p ro vid es fr e e h ealt h y, lo ca l, a n d o rg a n ic fo od a ro und th e c lo ck . G oogle y c u lt u re h as p aid o ff; th e c o m pan y b oaste d a n nual p ro it s o f $ 1 2.9 b illio n in J a n uary 2 014 ( R ush to n, 2 014). D esp it e th e s u cce ss s to rie s o f w ork p la ce s u bcu lt u re s, th e e x is te n ce o f w ork p la ce c o unte rc u lt u re s a re p ote n tia lly m uch m ore p ro ble m atic b eca u se t h ey w ould c h alle n ge t h e v a lu es, e th ic s, a n d g o als o f th e c o m pan y in a fo undatio nal w ay a n d d estr o y im porta n t r e la tio nsh ip s w it h in a c o m pan y. F o r e xa m ple , a g ro up o f a n ti- im mig ra n t e m plo ye es w ho b elie ve U .S . c o m pan ie s s h ould h ir e o nly U .S . c it iz e n s m ay is o la te n ew h ir e s w ho a re im mig ra n ts a n d r e fu se to c o opera te w it h th em . T his w ould h in der c o m pan y p ro ductiv it y . W hat W ould Y o u D o? R esp ondin g t o C u lt u ra l D iffe re n ce s i n t h e W ork p la ce S u ppose t h at, b ase d o n y o ur u pbrin gin g, y o u h ave a lw ay s b een t a u gh t t o d efe r t o p eo ple in p osit io ns o f a u th orit y a n d n ot c h alle n ge th eir o rd ers. A t w ork , h ow eve r, y o u n otic e th at y o ur c o w ork e rs d o n ot h esit a te to s p eak u p a n d s h are t h eir o pin io ns w it h y o ur b oss. Y o ur b oss d oes n ot s e em o ffe n ded w hen c h alle n ged a n d s e em s t o e n jo y t h e th ough t-p ro vo kin g d eb ate s th at e n su e. S o m etim es, s h e e ve n c h an ges th in gs b ase d o n th e u nso lic it e d in put. 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 2 8/4 8 D esp it e y o ur e ffo rts t o f o llo w t h e r u le s a n d f u l ill y o ur jo b d escrip tio n to th e b est o f y o ur a b ilit y , y o u ju st c a n not g et y o ur b oss to ta ke m uch n otic e o f y o u. B ase d o n w hat y o u k n ow a b out th e w ay cu lt u re p la y s o ut in th e w ork p la ce , h ow w ould y o u a d dre ss t h is s it u atio n? M arg in aliz e d W ork ers T he A m eric a n w ork p la ce r e le cts s o cie ty ’s p lu ra lis m , in w hic h m an y d iv e rse s u bcu lt u re s c o ntr ib ute to th e w hole . Ju st a s in s o cie ty , h ow eve r, s o m e s o cia l g ro ups a re m arg in aliz ed , o r r e le ga te d to p osit io ns o f le sse r p ow er a n d in lu en ce . M arg in aliz e d w ork e rs h ave le ss a cce ss to r e so urc e s, b en eit s , a n d c rit ic a l lif e e x p erie n ce s a n d o pportu nit ie s th at h ave a n im porta n t e ffe ct o n th eir lo ng-te rm c a re er a n d lif e c h an ce s. In th e U nit e d S ta te s m arg in aliz e d w ork e rs in clu de th e w ork in g poor, undocu m en te d im mig ra n t w ork e rs, ch ild la b ore rs, th ose w ork in g in th e in fo rm al eco nom y in n onre gu la te d jo bs ( w ho t e n d t o b e p aid “ u nder t h e ta b le ” o r “ o ff th e b ooks,” s u ch a s in -h om e c h ild c a re p ro vid ers), e x- c o nvic ts , a n d th e c h ro nic a lly u nem plo ye d . M an y su ch w ork e rs— p artic u la rly u ndocu m en te d w ork e rs a n d th ose w it h p ris o n r e co rd s— are s h ut o ut o f le ga l o pportu nit ie s f o r e m plo ym en t a n d c o nin ed t o t h e in fo rm al e co nom y. T here a re a n e stim ate d 1 1.4 m illio n u ndocu m en te d im mig ra n ts in th e U nit e d S ta te s ( B ake r & R ytin a, 2 013); th is ig u re r e p re se n ts a m assiv e p opula tio n— ab out 5 % o f th e to ta l w ork fo rc e . U ndocu m en te d w ork e rs a re fr e q uen tly e x p lo it e d . T hey r e ce iv e lo w w ages, o fte n w ork in u nsa fe o r u ncle an e n vir o nm en ts th at e sca p e r e gu la to ry s ta n dard s, a n d a re n ot c o m pen sa te d f o r w ork p la ce in ju rie s. I n fo rm al e co nom y jo bs a re ty p ic a lly c lu ste re d in fo od s e rv ic e , h osp it a lit y , c o nstr u ctio n, a gric u lt u re , a n d m an ufa ctu rin g. P o sit io ns in clu de d is h w ash ers, d ay la b ore rs, c le an ers, a n d fr u it p ic k e rs. S o m etim es, th ough , u ndocu m en te d w ork e rs w it h f a ke S o cia l S ecu rit y c a rd s in d e m plo ym en t “ o n t h e b ooks” a n d w ork fo r c o m pan ie s th at r e ly o n c h eap , e x p lo it a b le l a b or, s u ch a s s o m e r e ta il s to re ja n it o ria l s e rv ic e s a n d m eat p ro ce ssin g p la n ts ( G oss e t a l., 2 013). A s p art o f th e fo rm al e co nom y, t h ese u ndocu m en te d w ork e rs p ay t a xe s, in clu din g t h ose t o w ard u nem plo ym en t in su ra n ce a n d S o cia l S ecu rit y . T hey w ill n eve r s e e th e b en eit s o f th ese ta xe s, h ow eve r, s in ce th ey h ave fa b ric a te d S o cia l S ecu rit y n um bers a n d o fte n d o n ot u se t h eir r e al n am es. U ndocu m en te d w ork e rs a re a ls o m ore v u ln era b le to s e xu al h ara ssm en t a n d e x p lo it a tio n th an o th er w ork e rs, b eca u se t h ey a re le ss lik e ly to ile c o m pla in ts . A s U .S . E q ual E m plo ym en t O pportu nit y C om mis sio n (E EO C) la w ye r B ill T a m ayo p oin ts o ut, “ C ondit io ns th at a llo w s e xu al a ssa u lt to o ccu r a ll r e vo lv e a ro und w ho h as p ow er” ( a s c it e d in K hoka , 2 013, p ara . 1 0). U ndocu m en te d w ork e rs h ave lit tle p ow er, w hic h m ake s t h em r e la tiv e ly e asy p re y f o r s u perv is o rs w ho m ay b e s e xu al p re d ato rs o r fo r e m plo ye rs w illin g to c h eat w ork e rs o ut o f th eir w ages. F o r e xa m ple , m ore th an 8 0% o f u rb an , u ndocu m en te d w ork e rs in lo w -w age o ccu patio ns in te rv ie w ed b y r e se arc h ers n ote “ w age th eft” v io la tio ns, s u ch a s n ot r e ce iv in g o ve rtim e o r m in im um w age ( B ern hard t e t a l., 2 009). P ublic p olic y th at pro m ote s bette r en fo rc e m en t of ex is tin g la b or la w s, esta b lis h es m ore f a r-r e ach in g w ork p la ce r e gu la tio n, an d cre ate s eq ual sta tu s fo r all w ork e rs w ould help m it ig a te so m e of th ese in eq ualit ie s. H ow eve r, r e sp onsib ilit y fo r w ork e r eq ualit y als o re sts w it h unio ns, hum an re so urc e s ofic e s, so cia l se rv ic e s, w ork e r an d i m mig ra tio n c e n te rs, le ga l s e rv ic e s, a n d e ve n in div id ual c it iz e n s w ho a re a w are o f e x p lo it a tiv e s it u atio ns. T hey c a n w ork i n div id ually a n d in c o lla b ora tio n t o a d dre ss a n d p re ve n t t h e m an if e sta tio n o f t h ese is su es in t h e w ork p la ce . 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 2 9/4 8 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 3 0/4 8 4 .2 D is crim in atio n i n t h e W ork p la ce T hough le gis la tio n p ro hib it s m uch w ork p la ce d is c rim in atio n — tr e atin g e m plo ye es d if fe re n tly b eca u se o f th eir g ro up i d en tit y — it c o ntin ues t o o ccu r. B ia s a n d p re ju dic e s till im pact h ir in g, p ro m otio n, jo b r e te n tio n, a n d w ork p la ce c u lt u re . In t h e f o llo w in g s e ctio ns, w e e xa m in e h ow in -g ro ups a n d o ut-g ro ups c a n f o rm a n d h ow s te re o ty p es a n d p re ju dic e c a n le ad t o d is crim in atio n in t h e w ork p la ce . I n -G ro u ps a n d O ut-G ro u ps A t w ork , p eo ple te n d to se lf -s e gre ga te in to in -g ro ups a n d o ut-g ro ups, an d th e in -g ro ups ca n d om in ate w ork p la ce c u lt u re . F ro m a s o cio lo gic a l p ersp ectiv e , a n i n -g ro u p c o nsis ts o f a g ro up o f in div id uals w ho s h are a s e n se o f a filia tio n o r fe elin gs o f b elo ngin g w it h o ne a n oth er. C onve rse ly , a n o u t-g ro u p c o nsis ts o f th ose w ho d o n ot b elo ng to th e in – g ro up. O ut-g ro up m em bers d o n ot id en tif y a s s u ch , h ow eve r, a n d a re o nly id en ti ie d a s m em bers b eca u se th ey a re n ot i n t h e in -g ro up. S o m etim es g ro up a filia tio n ta ke s s h ap e a s a r e su lt o f fe elin g s u perio r a b out o ne’s c h ose n g ro up r a th er th an fe elin g n ega tiv e ly a b out a n oth er ( A berso n, H ealy , & R om ero , 2 000). H ow eve r, a s e rie s o f c la ssic e x p erim en ts fo und th at w hen g ro ups a re fo rm ed , th ey te n d to q uic k ly id en tif y c h ara cte ris tic s a b out th eir g ro up th at a llo w m em bers to fe el th ey a re b ette r th an p eo ple in o th er g ro ups (T a jf e l, 2 010). C alle d i n -g ro u p b ia s , th is p hen om en on ca n e it h er d elib era te ly o r u nco nscio usly le ad t o d is crim in atio n a ga in st o ut-g ro ups. M em bers o f in -g ro ups v ie w th em se lv e s a s h av in g tr a it s in co m mon w hile m ain ta in in g th eir se n se o f in div id ualit y . H ow eve r, in -g ro up m em bers o fte n v ie w o ut-g ro up m em bers a s b ein g a ll a lik e , a p hen om en on k n ow n a s o u t-g ro u p h om ogen eit y b ia s . F o r e xa m ple , m em bers o f a s o cia l g ro up th at c o nsis ts o f m ale s m ay s a y, “ Y o u k n ow h ow w om en a re ,” l im it in g w om en t o o ne s e t o f c o lle ctiv e b eh av io rs. Y e t in div id uals in t h e m ale s o cia l g ro up r e co gn iz e v a rie ty in th eir o w n e x p erie n ce s, b eh av io rs, a n d p erso nalit ie s, k n ow in g th at m en a re n ot a ll a lik e . O ut-g ro up h om ogen eit y b ia s r e in fo rc e s s te re o ty p es, o r p opula r, ir ra tio nal b elie fs a b out a p artic u la r s o cia l g ro up t h at f o rm t h e f o undatio n o f p re ju dic e . S te re oty p in g a n d P re ju dic e H um an s ca te go riz e an d gen era liz e co nce p ts in o rd er to m ake se n se of th em , an evo lu tio nary tr a it th at ca n be a d va n ta geo us w hen ex p lo rin g a co m ple x w orld . How eve r, th ese ca te go rie s an d gen era liz a tio ns ca n le ad to s te re o ty p in g , o r s u bje ctiv e ly a n d ir ra tio nally a ssig n in g c o m mon c h ara cte ris tic s to a n oth er g ro up. O nce a ste re o ty p e b eco m es e sta b lis h ed , it m ay b e r e afir m ed t h ro ugh jo ke s, in su lt s , a n d s ta te m en ts a b out th e g ro up u ntil it is w id ely h eld a s a s o cia l b elie f. F o r th ose w ho s u bscrib e to th e s te re o ty p e, r e fe re n ce s to th e g ro up r e ad ily in vo ke r e fe re n ce to th e s te re o ty p e. In th e w ork p la ce , fo r e xa m ple , m an y p eo ple p erc e iv e o ld er w ork e rs a s se t in th eir w ay s a n d u nw illin g to tr y n ew th in gs. S te re o ty p es d im in is h p ro ductiv it y w hen th ey p re ve n t m an agers a n d co w ork e rs fr o m se ein g th e str e n gth s o f so m e w ork e rs. W hen s o m eo ne w ho h old s a s te re o ty p e e n co unte rs a p erso n w ho d oes n ot c o nfo rm to it , th ey a re lik e ly to d is m is s t h e o th er p erso n a s a n “ e xce p tio n” r a th er t h an c h an ge h is o r h er o w n b elie f. P eo ple r a re ly h ave p osit iv e r e sp onse s t o b ein g s te re o ty p ed . I n o ne s tu dy, r e se arc h ers fo und th at w om en o fte n fe el th ey a re s te re o ty p ed a s le ss c o m pete n t t h an m en in t h e a re as o f s cie n ce , te ch nolo gy, e n gin eerin g, a n d m ath . T he a ssu m ptio n t h at th ey w ill b e tr e ate d d if fe re n tly b eca u se o f th is s te re o ty p e c a n c a u se w om en to fe el a n xie ty w hen d oin g b usin ess w it h a m an , s u ch a s g ettin g a c a r r e p air e d o r s e ekin g in ve stm en t a d vic e (L ee, K im , & V o hs, 2 011). F u rth erm ore , th e a n tic ip atio n o f b ein g ste re o ty p ed m ay le ad so m e w om en to avo id m en in th ese sit u atio ns or to actu ally ad opt s te re o ty p ic a l b eh av io rs, su ch a s su bse rv ie n ce o r m eekn ess, w hen in te ra ctin g w it h th em , eve n w hen th ey are w ell i n fo rm ed a b out th e to pic a t h an d. T his c a n le ad to d im in is h ed r o le s fo r w om en in th e w ork p la ce , h urtin g b oth th eir o rg a n iz a tio ns— whic h c o uld b en eit f r o m t h eir in put— an d t h eir c h an ce s f o r p ro m otio n. S o m e p eo ple m ay a tte m pt to d is ta n ce th em se lv e s fr o m a s o cia l g ro up to a vo id b ein g s te re o ty p ed . T hey m ay p urp ose ly b eh ave in w ay s t h at c o ntr a d ic t a s te re o ty p e, o r e ve n m ake s ta te m en ts t h at r e in fo rc e a s te re o ty p e o f t h eir g ro up in o rd er t o a p pear a s th e e xce p tio n. F o r e xa m ple , a n o ld er w ork e r m ay sta rt tw eetin g in o rd er to avo id b ein g la b ele d as 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 3 1/4 8 t e ch nophobic . O r a w om an w ho s e eks a cce p ta n ce b y a m ale in -g ro up m ay a d opt m ale tr a it s , s u ch a s ta kin g in te re st in a s p eci ic s p orts t e am ; s h e m ay e ve n b ash w om en w ho d o n ot lik e s p orts . S te re o ty p es c a n a ls o le ad to p re ju dic e . G ord on A llp ort (1 954/1 979) d ein ed p re ju dic e a s a h ostile a ttit u de to w ard i n div id uals o r s o cia l g ro ups. P re ju dic e d p eo ple , a cco rd in g t o A llp ort, d en y fa cts a n d r e fu se to h onestly a sse ss o th ers s o t h at th ey c a n e n han ce th eir s e n se o f s e lf -w orth o r p erc e iv e d s ta tu s. A ddit io nally , A llp ort p ro pose d th e e x is te n ce o f a g ro u p n orm t h eo ry o f p re ju dic e , in w hic h m em bers o f a s o cia l g ro up d ete rm in e s ta n dard s a cco rd in g to th eir o w n v a lu es o nly . T hose w ho h old d if fe re n t v a lu es a re b elie ve d t o b e “ w ro ng” o r “ e v il.” A c la ssic e xa m ple o f th e g ro up n orm th eo ry o f p re ju dic e c o m es fr o m th e C old W ar (w hic h la ste d fr o m a p pro xim ate ly 1 946 to 1 991), w hen ca p it a lis t a n d co m munis t n atio ns d ecla re d e ach o th er e v il. T o day th e g ro up n orm th eo ry o f p re ju dic e d riv e s h atr e d o f W este rn ers a m ong M uslim fu ndam en ta lis t g ro ups, lik e th e T a lib an a n d IS IS in th e M id dle E ast, t h at o ppose W este rn d em ocra tic v a lu es a n d g en der e q ualit y a n d e sp ouse h atr e d o f Je w s a n d C hris tia n s a n d o th er s e cts o f M uslim s. A llp ort’s L eve ls o f A ggre ssio n A llp ort n ote d t h at p re ju dic e e sca la te s le ve ls o f a ggre ssio n b y in -g ro ups. T hese a re o utlin ed in T a b le 4 .1 . T a ble 4 .1 : A llp ort’s iv e l e ve ls o f a ggre ssio n L eve l D esc rip tio n L eve l 1 : A ntilo cu tio n ( h ate s p eech ) N ega tiv e s p eech t a rg ete d a t m em bers o f t h e o ut-g ro up L eve l 2 : A vo id an ce A vo id an ce o r e xclu sio n o f m em bers o f t h e o ut-g ro up L eve l 3 : D is crim in atio n D en ia l o f o pportu nit ie s o r s e rv ic e s t o m em bers o f t h e o ut-g ro up L eve l 4 : P hysic a l a tta ck V io le n ce t a rg ete d a t m em bers o f t h e o ut-g ro up L eve l 5 : E xte rm in atio n V io le n ce in te n ded t o e lim in ate m em bers o f t h e o ut-g ro up S ource : B ased o n A llp ort, 1 979. T he ir st le ve l o f a ggre ssiv e b eh av io r c o nsis ts o f n ega tiv e v e rb al c o m men ts o r s lu rs a b out m em bers o f th e o ut-g ro up. A llp ort t e rm ed t h is “ a n tilo cu tio n,” b ut t o day it is k n ow n a s h ate s p eech . H ate s p eech in clu des jo ke s o r jib es a b out o th ers a s w ell a s n ega tiv e o r d em ean in g e xa ggera tio ns. F o r e xa m ple , a n a rm y d rill s e rg ean t m ay c a ll a n ew g ro up o f m ale r e cru it s “ g ir ls ” t o h um ilia te t h em a n d im ply t h at t h ey a re w eak. O f c o urse , in a d dit io n t o h um ilia tin g t h e m en , th is ty p e o f s p eech w ork s t o s u pport th e s te re o ty p e th at w om en a re p hysic a lly in fe rio r. T he C iv il R ig h ts A ct o f 1 964 s tip ula te s th at e m plo ye rs c a n b e h eld lia b le f o r a llo w in g h ate s p eech t h at c o ntr ib ute s t o a h ostile w ork p la ce e n vir o nm en t. T he s e co nd le ve l o f a ggre ssio n a sso cia te d w it h p re ju dic e is a vo id an ce . M em bers o f th e in -g ro up m ay e xclu de o th ers in t h e w ork p la ce b y c lu ste rin g to geth er in s o cia l s it u atio ns o r s h arin g to ols o r id eas o nly w it h m em bers o f th eir g ro up. W hen th ose in th e o ut-g ro up a re is o la te d , d if fe re n ce s b eco m e m ore e xa ggera te d a n d a d here n ce to in -g ro up v a lu es b eco m es m ore e n tr e n ch ed . I n t h e w ork p la ce , a vo id an ce m ay b e s u btle ( s u ch a s in -g ro up m em bers m eetin g fo r lu nch a t a s p eci ic ta b le o r d esig n ate d s p ot) o r o ve rt ( m em bers o f th e o ut-g ro up b ein g r e je cte d fr o m o r n ot in vit e d to a n y in – g ro up a ctiv it y ). I n t h e t h ir d le ve l o f A llp ort’s s ca le , a ctio ns b eco m e in te n tio nally d esig n ed to m an if e st d is crim in atio n o r in stit u tio naliz e d r a cis m . F o r e xa m ple , e m plo ye rs m ay o nly h ir e o r p ro m ote p eo ple th ey k n ow a d here to in -g ro up v a lu es. A lt h ough r e la tiv e ly fe w c o m pan ie s d o th is w it h th e in te n t to d is crim in ate to day, c u rre n t h ir in g p ra ctic e s th at re ly o n p erso nal c o nnectio ns te n d to le ad to th e sa m e re su lt — a re la tiv e ly h om ogen ous w ork fo rc e . In re ce n t y e ars co m pan ie s h ave i n cre asin gly tu rn ed to e m plo ye e r e co m men datio ns a n d r e fe rra ls w hen h ir in g. F o r e xa m ple , b etw een 2 010 a n d 2 013, n on-e n tr y -le ve l h ir e s r e co m men ded b y e m plo ye es in cre ase d fr o m 2 8% to 4 5% a t th e a cco untin g ir m E rn st & Y o ung. T he ir m ’s g o al is t o in cre ase t h at r a te t o 5 0% . O th ers, s u ch a s D elo it te a n d E nte rp ris e R en t-A -C ar, h ave b egu n o ffe rin g p riz e s lik e iP ad s a n d la rg e-s cre en T V s i n a d dit io n t o t r a d it io nal c a sh in ce n tiv e s f o r e m plo ye es w ho r e fe r n ew h ir e s.… 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 3 2/4 8 A t S o dexo , a f o od s e rv ic e a n d f a cilit ie s m an agem en t c o m pan y t h at h ir e s 4 ,6 00 m an agers a n d e xe cu tiv e s a y e ar, r e fe rre d e m plo ye es a re 1 0 t im es m ore lik e ly t o b e h ir e d t h an o th er a p plic a n ts . “ W e’r e f o cu sin g o n w hat w ill b e m ost e fic ie n t,” s a id A rie B all, S o dexo ’s v ic e p re sid en t f o r t a le n t a cq uis it io n. ( S ch w artz , 2 013, p ara s. 6 , 1 7–1 8) I n a ll o f th ese c a se s, p eo ple w it h out c o nnectio ns w ho a re n ot a lr e ad y p art o f th e in -g ro up h ave a m uch m ore d if ic u lt t im e in din g e m plo ym en t. T he f a ct t h at f r ie n dsh ip g ro ups te n d to b e h om ogen ous ( m ad e u p o f p eo ple o f th e s a m e a ge, r a ce , g en der, s o cia l c la ss, s e xu al o rie n ta tio n, a n d so o n), m ean s th is tr e n d d oes n ot le n d it s e lf to o pportu nit ie s fo r m em bers o f m arg in aliz e d d em ogra p hic g ro ups. A t th e sa m e tim e, e m plo ye rs co uld a ls o d is crim in ate b y h ir in g o nly y o ung p eo ple b eca u se th ey w an t “fr e sh ” fa ce s to re p re se n t th e co m pan y, or only Chris tia n s beca u se th ey w an t a lig n m en t w it h c e rta in m ora l v a lu es. S ele ctin g e m plo ye es b ase d o n p re ju dic e is o ne w ay th at r a cis m b eco m es b uilt in to th e s o cia l s y ste m . In stit u tio naliz e d r a cis m c a n b e s e en in th e d em ogra p hic s o f jo b ty p es in th e U nit e d S ta te s. In th e S o uth w est, fo r e xa m ple , H is p an ic w ork e rs la rg ely ill m in im um w age jo bs a t c a r w ash es, in r e sta u ra n ts , a n d in la n dsca p in g. A fr ic a n A m eric a n s te n d to h old th e sa m e jo bs in th e So uth east. The clu ste rin g of ra ce s an d eth nic it ie s th ro ugh in stit u tio naliz e d ra cis m is d is crim in atio n a n d f u rth er e n tr e n ch es t h e s o cia l v a lu es a n d p ow er o f in -g ro ups. T he f o urth le ve l o f a ggre ssio n o n A llp ort’s s ca le is v io le n ce a ga in st o ut-g ro up m em bers. In -g ro ups in tim id ate m em bers o f o ut-g ro ups b y d estr o yin g p ro perty o r p hysic a lly a tta ck in g in div id uals . T hese a ctio ns a re c o nsid ere d h ate c rim es. T he U .S . D ep artm en t o f Ju stic e r e p orts th at a b out h alf o f a ll h ate c rim es a re m otiv a te d b y e th nic it y — th e v ic tim ’s a n ce str a l, c u lt u ra l, s o cia l, o r n atio nal a filia tio n ( B ure au o f Ju stic e S ta tis tic s, 2 014). O ne g ro up th at is fr e q uen tly th e ta rg et o f h ate c rim es is H is p an ic s. A s im mig ra tio n re fo rm a im ed a t d ealin g w it h la rg e n um bers o f u ndocu m en te d H is p an ic s w as p ublic ly d eb ate d a n d t h e u nem plo ym en t r a te r e m ain ed s tu bborn ly h ig h , t h e r a te o f h ate c rim es a ga in st H is p an ic s t r ip le d f r o m 2 011 to 2 012. M ost o f th e v ic tim s liv e d in h ouse h old s th at e arn le ss th an $ 2 5,0 00 a n nually , w hic h is ty p ic a l o f m arg in aliz e d w ork e rs. V io le n ce t a ke n t o t h e m ost in hum an e e x tr e m es c o nstit u te s A llp ort’s if th le ve l o f a ggre ssio n, in w hic h th e u lt im ate g o al i s t o e lim in ate a n e n tir e o ut-g ro up. E xa m ple s o f th is le ve l o f a ggre ssio n in clu de N azi G erm an y’s g en ocid e o f m illio ns o f J e w s d urin g t h e H olo ca u st a n d t h e R w an dan g en ocid e o f 1 996. 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 3 3/4 8 4 .3 R acia l, E th nic , a n d C u lt u ra l D iffe re n ce s i n t h e W ork fo rc e R acia l, e th nic , a n d c u lt u ra l d iv e rsit y a m ong w ork e rs w ill c o ntin ue to g ro w in c o m in g y e ars. W it h in th is c lim ate , e ffe ctiv e m an agers a n d e m plo ye es m ust a d ap t to d if fe re n t cu lt u re s. T his is n o e asy ta sk , g iv e n th e su btle co m ple x it ie s an d a m big u ous n atu re o f r a ce , e th nic it y , a n d c u lt u re . R ace a n d E th nic it y R ace , th e id en ti ic a tio n o f a g ro up o f p eo ple b y p erc e iv e d p hysic a l c h ara cte ris tic s, is k n ow n to s o cio lo gis ts a s a s o cia l c o nstr u ct, o r a co nce p t th at is co nce iv e d b y h um an s to m ake se n se o f th eir w orld . E th nic it y re fe rs to th e sh are d c u lt u ra l b ack g ro unds w it h w hic h p eo ple id en tif y . R acia l a n d e th nic c a te go rie s c h an ge fr o m s o cie ty to s o cie ty a n d w it h in t h e s a m e s o cie tie s o ve r t im e. F o r e xa m ple , t h e U .S . C en su s B ure au h as c h an ged h ow it c la ssi ie s p eo ple b y r a ce o ve r th e h is to ry o f th e n atio n. B etw een 1 790 a n d 1 850, th e o nly r a cia l c a te go rie s u se d b y th e C en su s B ure au w ere “ W hit e a n d B la ck ( N egro ), w it h B la ck d esig n ate d a s f r e e a n d s la ve ” ( G ib so n & J u ng, 2 005, p ara . 1 4). T he r a cia l a n d e th nic la b els u se d to day b y th e U .S . C en su s B ure au w ere e sta b lis h ed in 1 977, in a n e ffo rt to e n su re th e e n fo rc e m en t o f c iv il r ig h ts le gis la tio n. A t th at tim e, th e O fic e o f M an agem en t a n d B udget’s D ir e ctiv e N o. 1 5: S ta n dard s f o r t h e C la ssi ic a tio n o f F ed era l D ata o n R ace a n d E th nic it y d ein ed iv e m ain r a cia l a n d e th nic c a te go rie s in th e U nit e d S ta te s: ( a ) A m eric a n I n dia n o r A la sk a n N ativ e , ( b ) A sia n o r P aci ic I s la n der, ( c ) B la ck , ( d ) H is p an ic , a n d ( e ) W hit e . I n 1 997 th e O fic e o f M an agem en t a n d B udget c h an ged th ese c a te go rie s b y s e p ara tin g th e “A sia n o r P aci ic Is la n der” c a te go ry in to tw o (“A sia n a n d N ativ e H aw aiia n ” o r “o th er P aci ic Is la n der”) a n d ch an gin g “H is p an ic ” to “H is p an ic o r L atin o” a n d “B la ck ” to “B la ck o r A fr ic a n A m eric a n .” T hey a ls o sp eci ie d th at e th nic it y w ould b e co unte d a s “e it h er H is p an ic o r L atin o” o r “n ot H is p an ic o r L atin o” (O fic e o f M an agem en t a n d B udget, 1 997). S in ce th e 2 000 ce n su s, p eo ple h ave b een a b le to s e le ct m ore th an o ne r a cia l c a te go ry to d escrib e th em se lv e s a n d th eir d ep en den ts . A lt h ough n eit h er r a ce n or e th nic it y o ffe r a f u ll p ic tu re o f t h e p eo ple t h ey id en tif y , c u rre n t U .S . C en su s B ure au a n d U .S . D ep artm en t o f L ab or d ata u se t h e c a te go rie s lis te d in T a b le 4 .2 t o c la ssif y p eo ple a n d t o s tu dy t h e c h an gin g w ork fo rc e . B eca u se e th nic it y r e fe rs to th e sh are d h is to ric a l a n d cu lt u ra l b ack g ro unds w it h w hic h p eo ple id en tif y , “H is p an ic ” is c o nsid ere d a n e th nic it y , t h ough m em bers o f t h is g ro up t e n d t o b e t r e ate d a s a r a cia l g ro up. A ls o , a lt h ough c u lt u ra l tr a it s v a ry co nsid era b ly am ong H is p an ic s, th ose ofte n asso cia te d w it h th is gro up in clu de pra ctic in g Cath olic is m or P en te co sta lis m , s p eakin g S p an is h , v a lu in g s tr o ng fa m ily tie s th at e x te n d b eyo nd th e n ucle ar fa m ily , a n d a d herin g to t r a d it io nal gen der ro le s. Ste re o ty p es w it h a cle ar im pact on th e w ork p la ce in clu de “H is p an ic s are alw ay s la te ,” “ H is p an ic s a re u ned uca te d ,” a n d “ H is p an ic s d on’t s p eak o r w rit e E nglis h w ell.” In r e ce n t y e ars, th e p osit iv e s te re o ty p e “ H is p an ic s a re h ard w ork in g” h as a ls o e m erg ed . C u lt u ra l D iv e rsit y F o re ig n -b orn w ork e rs a re a n oth er im porta n t g ro up w it h a n in cre asin g r o le in A m eric a n b usin ess. I n 1 960 a b out 1 in 1 7 w ork e rs w as f o re ig n -b orn , a n d t h at n um ber h as in cre ase d t o a p pro xim ate ly 1 in 6 t o day. I n 1 960 a p pro xim ate ly 7 4% o f f o re ig n -b orn w ork e rs c a m e f r o m E u ro pe, w it h a b out 9 % fr o m L atin A m eric a . T o day o nly 1 0% o f fo re ig n -b orn w ork e rs c o m e fr o m E u ro pe, w it h 3 8% co m in g fr o m M ex ic o a n d C en tr a l A m eric a a n d 2 8% fr o m A sia an d th e M id dle E ast ( M osis a , 2 002, 2 013). T a ble 4 .2 : U .S . r a cia l d em ogra p hic s ( a s o f 2 012) R ace o r e th nic it y P erc e n ta ge W hit e , a lo ne 7 7.9 % W hit e ( n ot H is p an ic o r L atin o) 6 3% H is p an ic o r L atin o 1 7% B la ck o r A fr ic a n A m eric a n , a lo ne 1 3.1 % A sia n , a lo ne 5 .1 % 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 3 4/4 8 T his v id eo e x p lo re s r a cia l s te re o ty pes a n d d is c rim in atio n t h ro ugh out A m eric a’s h is to ry . R acia l S te re o ty p es a n d D is c rim in atio n R ace o r e th nic it y P erc e n ta ge A m eric a n I n dia n o r A la sk a N ativ e , a lo ne 1 .1 % N ativ e H aw aiia n a n d o th er P aci ic I s la n der, a lo ne 0 .2 % T w o o r m ore r a ce s 2 .4 % N ote . B ase d o n h ow p eop le r a cia lly id en tif y t h em se lv e s ( to ta l p erc e n ta ges d o n ot e q ual 1 00% b eca u se r e sp on den ts c a n p ic k m ore t h an o n e c a te gory ). S ource : U .S . C en su s B ure a u, 2 014b. W ork in g w it h p eo ple o f cu lt u ra lly d iv e rse b ack g ro unds so m etim es p re se n ts ch alle n ges. F o r exa m ple , la n gu age o r c u lt u ra l b arrie rs c a n le ad to c o m munic a tio n p ro ble m s. L an gu age b arrie rs a re o fte n r e le cte d in th e u se o f id io m s a n d j a rg o n, w hic h ca n fu el m is u ndersta n din gs. F o r e xa m ple , im agin e a n E nglis h sp eakin g m an ager in th e U .S . te llin g a m ark e tin g s p ecia lis t t h at s h e “ ju m ped t h e g u n” b y r e le asin g s a le s n um bers o n a n ew p ro duct b efo re g ettin g a p pro va l. A n ativ e U .S . E nglis h sp eake r w ould lik e ly u ndersta n d th e p hra se a n d b e m ore ca re fu l in th e fu tu re ab out re le asin g c o m pan y d ata . H ow eve r, s o m eo ne w ho h as n ot b een e x p ose d to th at id io m m ig h t n ot u ndersta n d w hat th e m an ager m ean s. F u rth erm ore , in o rd er to a p pear co m pete n t a n d co opera tiv e , so m e w ork e rs fo r w hom E nglis h is a se co nd l a n gu age m ay th in k o r in dic a te th at th ey u ndersta n d a n in str u ctio n w hen in re alit y th ey d o n ot, p artic u la rly w hen t e rm in olo gy is u ncle ar o r p ep pere d w it h u nfa m ilia r c u lt u ra l r e fe re n ce s. I n sid e a n d o uts id e th e w ork p la ce , r o le s a n d s ta tu s a re c o m munic a te d v ia v e rb al a n d n onve rb al c u es, w hic h c a n a ls o b re ed m is u ndersta n din g. F o r e xa m ple , in t h e c o nte m pora ry A m eric a n w ork p la ce , it is c o m mon to u se ir st n am es, e ve n w hen a d dre ssin g s u perv is o rs. In o th er cu lt u re s, h ow eve r, u sin g a ir st n am e im plie s fa m ilia rit y a n d e q ualit y a n d is c o nsid ere d in ap pro pria te w hen a d dre ssin g a su perio r. S im ila rly , in m ain str e am A m eric a n cu lt u re , e ye co nta ct is a n i m porta n t n onve rb al c o m munic a tio n th at c a n in dic a te a p erso n’s in te n t. H ow eve r, in m an y A sia n c u lt u re s, e ye c o nta ct m ay b e re ga rd ed a s d is re sp ectfu l o r a ggre ssiv e , a n d fo r m an y M uslim s, eye co nta ct b etw een w om en an d m en is r e se rv e d f o r c lo se r e la tiv e s o r s p ouse s. U ndersta n din g c u lt u ra l d if fe re n ce s is c ru cia l to r e sp ectin g o th ers a n d p ra ctic in g f u nctio nal c o m munic a tio n. P erso nal sp ace e x p ecta tio ns a ls o v a ry co nsid era b ly a m ong d if fe re n t cu lt u re s. A cce p ta b le d is ta n ce s b etw een p eo ple d if fe r d ep en din g o n fa m ilia rit y , a u th orit y , a n d s ta tu s. In th e U .S . w ork p la ce , c o w ork e rs ty p ic a lly m ain ta in 3 to 5 fe et o f d is ta n ce w hen c o nve rsin g. G erm an s a n d A sia n s a llo w m ore s p ace , a n d L atin os a n d p eo ple fr o m A ra b c u lt u re s te n d to a llo w le ss. A p erc e iv e d in va sio n o f p erso nal s p ace c a n c a u se a n in div id ual to h ave a s tr o ng e m otio nal r e actio n o r th in k t h e o th er p erso n is b ein g e it h er a ggre ssiv e o r o ve rly in tim ate (K en ned y, G la sch er, T yszk a , & A dolp hs, 2 009). S in ce p erso nal sp ace is a so cia l co nstr u ct th at va rie s am ong cu lt u re s, it is ofte n dif ic u lt to esta b lis h sta n dard s, so m is u ndersta n din gs c a n b e c o m mon. R acis m i n t h e W ork p la ce A s note d earlie r, desp it e le gis la tio n pro hib it in g em plo ym en t d is crim in atio n b y ra ce , it is still p re va le n t. R acia l p re ju dic e ca n r e su lt in co nscio us o r u nco nscio us “g a te ke ep in g,” w hic h is th e p ro ce ss of co ntr o llin g acce ss to peo ple , posit io ns, or pow er. G ate ke ep in g a ffe cts h ir in g p re fe re n ce s a n d tr e atm en t o n th e jo b, g iv e n th e re alit y th at w e all ca rry aro und in te rn aliz e d ra cis m “ b agga ge” th at w e ta ke to w ork . F o r e xa m ple , a h ir in g m an ager m ay a sso cia te n am es w it h p artic u la r r a ce s, c u lt u re s, o r r e lig io ns, w hic h m ay le ad to c e rta in a ssu m ptio ns a b out c a n did ate s b efo re t h ey a re s e le cte d fo r in te rv ie w s. If a h um an r e so urc e s m an ager r e v ie w s re su m es fr o m Tyre ll Jo nes, Elle n Roberts , Raj Pate l, R odrig o H ern an dez, M uham mad M orsi, an d D av id Silv e r, th e m an ager m ay c o nscio usly o r u nco nscio usly a sso cia te th e n am es w it h partic u la r ste re o ty p es. W heth er posit iv e or nega tiv e , s te re o ty p es sig n i ic a n tly co ntr ib ute to dis crim in atio n in hir in g a n d m ay c a u se a m an ager t o s e le ct o ne c a n did ate o ve r a n oth er. 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 3 5/4 8  C rit ic a l T hin kin g Q uestio n s I n 2 009 a n u nderc o ve r in ve stig a tio n b y th e B rit is h g o ve rn m en t r e ve ale d w id esp re ad b ia s a ga in st jo b a p plic a n ts w it h A sia n a n d A fr ic a n nam es. In ve stig a to rs se n t out 3,0 00 jo b ap plic a tio ns “ u sin g n am es re co gn iz a b ly fr o m th re e d if fe re n t co m munit ie s— N azia M ah m ood, M aria m N am agem be a n d A lis o n Tay lo r— fa ls e i d en tit ie s w ere c re ate d w it h s im ila r e x p erie n ce a n d q uali ic a tio ns” ( S ya l, 2 009, p ara . 3 ). T he a p plic a n t w ho a p peare d W hit e h ad to “ s e n d n in e a p plic a tio ns b efo re re ce iv in g a p osit iv e re sp onse o f e it h er a n in vit a tio n to a n in te rv ie w o r a n e n co ura gin g te le p hone c a ll. M in orit y ca n did ate s wit h th e sa m e quali ic a tio ns an d e x p erie n ce h ad t o s e n d 1 6 a p plic a tio ns b efo re r e ce iv in g a s im ila r r e sp onse ” ( S ya l, 2 009, p ara . 4 ). A 2 009 stu dy in th e U nit e d Sta te s fo und th at th e ra ce o f th e m an ager h ad a s ig n i ic a n t im pact o n th e r a ce o f e m plo ye es h ir e d . P artic u la rly in so uth ern sta te s, W hit e , His p an ic , an d Asia n m an agers te n d to h ir e m ore W hit e s a n d fe w er B la ck s th an d o B la ck m an agers. “ In a t y p ic a l s o uth ern s to re , t h e r e p la ce m en t o f a b la ck m an ager w it h a n on-b la ck m an ager ca u se s th e sh are o f b la ck s a m ong n ew h ir e s to fa ll fr o m 2 9 to 2 1 p erc e n t” (G iu lia n o, L ev in e, & Leo nard , 2009, p. 590). Als o , in are as w it h la rg e H is p an ic p opula tio ns, H is p an ic m an agers hir e m ore H is p an ic s a n d f e w er W hit e s t h an d o W hit e m an agers. P eo ple w it h lig h te r s k in to nes te n d to b e fa vo re d o ve r d ark e r s k in ned p eo ple in h ir in g p ro ce sse s. F o r e xa m ple , in o ne s tu dy, p artic ip an ts w ere a sk e d to co m pare jo b ap plic a n ts b y lo okin g at th eir ap plic a tio ns an d th eir p ic tu re s. T he a p plic a n ts w ere e q ually q uali ie d , a n d th e p hoto s a tta ch ed to th eir a p plic a tio n w ere ta ke n o f th e sa m e p erso n b ut a lt e re d to fe atu re d if fe re n t s k in to nes. T he s tu dy s h ow ed th at c a n did ate s w it h lig h te r s k in to nes w ere s e le cte d m ore f r e q uen tly t h an t h ose w it h d ark e r s k in , e ve n t h ough t h eir q uali ic a tio ns w ere e q ual ( H arris o n & T hom as, 2 009). P re ju dic e a n d D is crim in atio n B ase d o n R elig io n R elig io n c a n b e a n oth er s o urc e o f p re ju dic e a n d c o nlic t in th e w ork p la ce . S in ce th e S ep te m ber 1 1, 2 001 a tta ck s o n th e U nit e d S ta te s b y th e te rro ris t g ro up a l- Q aed a, p re ju dic e a ga in st M uslim s h as in cre ase d . A P ew R ese arc h C en te r s u rv e y, f o r e xa m ple , r e ve ale d th at in M arc h 2 002, 2 5% o f r e sp onders b elie ve d th at Is la m is m ore lik e ly to e n co ura ge v io le n ce t h an o th er r e lig io ns. B y M arc h 2 011, th e p erc e n ta ge o f th ose b elie v in g th at Is la m is m ore lik e ly to e n co ura ge v io le n ce h ad in cre ase d to 4 0% ( P ew R ese arc h C en te r, 2 011). T he p erc e n ta ge o f h ate c rim es r e la te d to r e lig io n— man y o f th em a ga in st M uslim s— ju m ped f r o m 1 0% in 2 004 t o 2 8% in 2 012 ( D ra ke , 2 014b). R elig io n-b ase d w ork p la ce c o m pla in ts ile d w it h t h e E EO C h ave m ore t h an d ouble d o ve r th e p ast 1 5 y e ars ( E EO C, 2 013). T it le V II o f th e 1 964 C iv il R ig h ts A ct p ro hib it s e m plo ye rs fr o m c o nsid erin g r e lig io n w hen h ir in g a n d to a cco m modate w ork e rs’ r e lig io us n eed s u nle ss d oin g s o c a u se s t h e e m plo ye r a n “ u ndue h ard sh ip ” ( E EO C, n .d .e , p ara . 1 9). I n th e 2 1st c e n tu ry th e E EO C h as w ork e d w it h “ e m plo ye es— Muslim s, C hris tia n s, S eve n th -D ay A dve n tis ts a n d o th ers— w ho w ere d en ie d r e q uests t o a vo id w ork o n S ab bath d ay s.” O th ers “ s a y m an agers h ave u nla w fu lly t o ld t h em n ot t o w ear h ija b s, w hic h a re th e h ead s ca rv e s w orn b y m an y M uslim w om en ; lo ng s k ir ts p re va le n t a m ong C hris tia n P en te co sta l w om en ; b eard s o r t u rb an s o fte n w orn b y S ik h s; a n d r e lig io us p ie rc in gs a n d t a tto os” ( T ro ttm an , 2 013, p ara s. 9 –1 0). O ne r e ce n t s tu dy in dic a te s th at in m ore c o nse rv a tiv e -le an in g s ta te s, M uslim jo b c a n did ate s a re le ss lik e ly to b e c a lle d fo r i n te rv ie w s t h an C hris tia n c a n did ate s w it h t h e s a m e q uali ic a tio ns ( S ah ga l, 2 013). 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 3 6/4 8 T his v id eo l o oks a t t h e d if ic u lt ie s w om en f a ce i n b eco m in g e q ual p artic ip an ts i n t h e w ork fo rc e. G en der i n t h e W ork p la ce  C rit ic a l T hin kin g Q uestio n s 4 .4 S e x , G en der, a n d S e x u al O rie n ta tio n D iv e rsit y i n t h e W ork p la ce J u st a s th e w ork fo rc e h as b eco m e m ore r a cia lly , e th nic a lly , a n d re lig io usly d iv e rse , it a ls o n ow in clu des m an y m ore w om en . W here as in 1 950 ju st 3 3.9 % o f w om en w ere in t h e la b or fo rc e , to day 7 0.1 % o f w om en w ork o uts id e th e h om e ( F u lle rto n, 1 999; B LS, 2 014j) . T he w ork p la ce a ls o in clu des m ore p eo ple w ho o pen ly d efy g en der s te re o ty p es a n d w ho a re le sb ia n , b is e xu al, g ay, o r t r a n sg en der ( L G BT). S e x a n d G en der S ex r e fe rs t o t h e c a te go rie s o f m an a n d w om an a s d ete rm in ed b y a p erso n’s b io lo gic a l p arts . A s m all p ortio n o f th e p opula tio n is b orn w it h i n te rse x c h ara cte ris tic s, b oth m ale a n d fe m ale p hysic a l f e atu re s. G en der r e fe rs t o t h e s o cia l r o le s a ttr ib ute d t o m ale s a n d f e m ale s w it h in a p artic u la r s o cie ty . G en der, lik e ra ce , is a so cia l c o nstr u ct, a n d o ccu patio ns s e en a s m ore a p pro pria te fo r m en o r w om en v a ry a cro ss t im e a n d c u lt u re s. F o r e xa m ple , in 1 800, 9 0% o f s ch oolt e ach ers in th e U nit e d S ta te s w ere m en . O nce e d uca tio n b eca m e co m puls o ry in th e 1820s an d th ousa n ds of te ach ers n eed ed t o b e h ir e d , w om en b ega n t o b e d escrib ed a s b oth n atu ra l t e ach ers (m ore b io lo gic a lly su it e d to sp en d tim e w it h ch ild re n t h an m en ) a n d a ffo rd ab le ( th ey w ere p aid h alf o f w hat m en h ad b een p aid to te ach ). T o day m ore th an 7 5% o f a ll K –1 2 te ach ers a re w om en ( D . G old ste in , 2 014). M an y w ork p la ce s still re le ct gen der ste re o ty p es. M en are still m ore lik e ly to b e p erc e iv e d a s n atu ra l le ad ers th an w om en , a n d b oth s e xe s t e n d to e x p ect w om en to d efe r to m en . M en a re m ore l ik e ly to in te rru pt an d sp eak ove r peo ple th an are w om en ( T a n nen , 2001; W ood, 2010). The fa ct th at m ost peo ple in l e ad ersh ip p osit io ns a re m en w ork s to s u pport th e id ea th at m en s h ould be le ad ers. As of 2013, am ong th e Fo rtu ne 500 c o m pan ie s, o nly 2 1 h ad f e m ale C EO s, a b out 4 % ( K an to r, 2 013). W om en to day s till m ake o nly 8 1 c e n ts fo r e ve ry d olla r m ad e b y m en (a ve ra gin g fu ll- tim e w ork a cro ss a ll o ccu patio ns) an d still f a ce th e p erc e p tio n th at th ey d o n ot d ese rv e a s m uch a s m en in t h e w ork fo rc e ( B LS, 2 013b). F o r e xa m ple , in a 2 012 Y a le s tu dy in w hic h p artic ip an ts w ere a sk e d to r a n k id en tic a lly q uali ie d m ale a n d fe m ale c a n did ate s, th e m ale c a n did ate s w ere d eem ed m ore c o m pete n t a n d d ese rv in g o f h ig h er s a la rie s th an th e f e m ale ones (M oss, D ovid io , Bre sco ll, Gra h am , & Han dels m an , 2012). Gen der ste re o ty p es ca n als o re su lt in d is crim in atio n w hen m ale em plo ye es are exclu siv e ly in vit e d to perfo rm ce rta in fu nctio ns, w om en w ho ap pear “ fe m in in e” a re h ir e d fo r c e rta in p osit io ns, w om en a re ir e d w hen th ey b eco m e p re gn an t, o r a n e m plo ye r a ssig n s a n e m plo ye e a t a sk b ase d o n h is o r h er s e x . S o cia lly p re scrib ed g en der r o le s a ls o le ad to c e rta in e x p ecta tio ns fo r m en a n d w om en in th e w ork p la ce . T hose w ho s te p o uts id e th em — fo r e xa m ple , a w om an w ho e xe rts p ow er e ffe ctiv e ly a t w ork o r a m an w ho a sk s fo r le x ib le h ours s o h e c a n b e a t h om e w it h h is k id s in t h e a fte rn oons— ca n f a ce n ega tiv e s a n ctio ns. B oth m ig h t b e p asse d o ve r fo r p ro m otio ns, re p rim an ded fo r th eir b eh av io r, o r in e x tr e m e c a se s, t e rm in ate d . G en der r o le s h ave b egu n t o s h if t , h ow eve r, a s m ore fa m ilie s n eed tw o in co m es to g et b y an d as fa th ers h ave b eco m e ex p ecte d to sp en d m ore tim e p are n tin g. R ese arc h b y th e N atio nal S tu dy o f th e C han gin g W ork fo rc e re ve ale d th at m en b elie ve th ey s h ould n ot ju st b e “a g o od e m plo ye e, w ork in g lo ng h ours to b e a 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 3 7/4 8 A rie l S kelle y /B le n d I m ages / G ett y I m ages G en der r o le s h ave b egu n t o s h ift i n r e ce n t d eca d es, m akin g i t m ore a cce p ta ble f o r f a th ers t o s ta y h om e w it h c h ild re n . D esp it e t h is s h ift , t h ose w ho s te p o u ts id e s o cia lly p re sc rib ed r o le s m ay s till e n co u nte r r e sis ta n ce. s u cce ssfu l b re ad w in ner, b ut a ls o an in vo lv e d an d n urtu rin g h usb an d/p artn er, f a th er a n d s o n” ( A um an n, G alin sk y, & M ato s, 2 011, p . 3 ). In fa ct, to day m en te n d t o f e el m ore s tr e ss a b out th eir c o nlic tin g p are n t a n d w ork r o le s th an d o w om en ( A um an n e t a l., 2 011). S e x u al O rie n ta tio n D iv e rsit y o f s e xu al o rie n ta tio n re fe rs to gen der ch ara cte ris tic s a p erso n in ds s e xu ally , r o m an tic a lly , o r e m otio nally a ttr a ctiv e . A ppro xim ate ly 3 .5 % o f U .S . a d ult s i d en tif y a s le sb ia n , g ay, o r b is e xu al. T hose “ w hose g en der id en tit y a n d/o r g en der e x p re ssio n d if fe rs fr o m w hat is ty p ic a lly asso cia te d w it h th e se x th ey w ere a ssig n ed a t b ir th ” ( G LA AD , 2 015, p ara . 5 ), a b out 0 .3 % o f th e p opula tio n, id en tif y a s t r a n sg en der . L esb ia n , g ay, b is e xu al, a n d tr a n sg en der (L G BT) in div id uals , o r t h ose p erc e iv e d t o b e L G BT, h ave lo ng s u ffe re d d is crim in atio n a n d in to le ra n ce in t h e w ork p la ce . U ntil re ce n tly , m ost LG BT work e rs had ex p erie n ce d h ete ro se x is m in th e w ork p la ce . T hat is , w ork p la ce cu lt u re a n d ru le s tr e ate d o pposit e -s e x ro m an tic r e la tio nsh ip s a s th e n orm a n d d id n ot a ck n ow le d ge s a m e-s e x r e la tio nsh ip s. F o r e xa m ple , in m an y p la ce s o f w ork , h ete ro se xu al w ork e rs m ig h t fe el co m fo rta b le d is p la y in g p hoto s o f th eir fa m ilie s, ta lk in g a b out th eir p artn ers, o r e x p re ssin g a ffe ctio n fo r th eir p artn ers at w ork -r e la te d so cia l eve n ts , but LG BT w ork e rs w ould n ot. T hese cu lt u ra l n orm s h ave le d to w ork p la ce d is crim in atio n a ga in st L G BT w ork e rs. T here is s till n o f e d era l la w t h at p ro hib it s s u ch d is crim in atio n, a n d i n 2 9 sta te s it is still le ga l to d is crim in ate in th e w ork p la ce b ase d o n se xu al o rie n ta tio n. I n 3 2 s ta te s w ork e rs m ay b e ir e d d ue t o t h eir g en der id en tit y . M an y w ork cu lt u re s have als o been to le ra n t of h om ophobia , or th e ir ra tio nal dis a p pro va l, fe ar, or hatr e d of h om ose xu als . H ate c rim es b ase d o n s e xu al o rie n ta tio n o r g en der id en tit y a re ille ga l a n d p unis h ab le b y fe d era l la w . H ow eve r, fe w er th an h alf o f s ta te s h ave le gis la tio n th at p ro vid es p ro te ctio n fo r L G BT p eo ple a ga in st o th er fo rm s o f d is crim in atio n ( s e e F ig u re 4 .1 ). F ig u re 4 .1 : S ta te s t h at p ro h ib it d is crim in atio n b ase d o n s e xu al o rie n ta tio n a n d g e n der i d en tit y I n m ore t h an h alf o f U .S . s ta te s, i t r e m ain s l e ga l t o d is crim in ate b ase d o n s e xu al o rie n ta tio n a n d g en der i d en tit y . 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 3 8/4 8 S ource : H um an R ig hts C a m paig n, 2 014. w ww.h rc .o rg ( h ttp :/ /w ww.h rc .o rg ) I n m ore th an h alf o f th e s ta te s, e m plo ye rs c a n le ga lly d is crim in ate a ga in st e m plo ye es a n d e ve n ir e th em b eca u se th ey a re gay, le sb ia n , o r tr a n sg en der. C le arly , th is d oes n ot cre ate a p osit iv e w ork en vir o nm en t fo r LG BT em plo ye es. A cco rd in g to a 2 013 P ew R ese arc h C en te r s tu dy, 2 1% o f L G BT e m plo ye es h ave fa ce d d is crim in atio n a t w ork b ase d o n t h eir s e xu al o rie n ta tio n o r g en der id en tit y ( B ro w n, 2 013). A s a m ic ro co sm o f so cie ty , th e co nte m pora ry w ork p la ce has em plo ye es w ho are bis e xu al, tr a n sg en der, ase xu al, t r a n sse xu al, an d gay or le sb ia n . A llo w in g hom ophobia or dis crim in atio n in th e w ork p la ce ca n nega tiv e ly affe ct p ro ductiv it y a n d p ro it b y d iv e rtin g a tte n tio n a w ay fr o m w ork a n d c re atin g a c u lt u re o f d is u nit y . In fa ct, a 2 009 H um an R ig h ts C am paig n F o undatio n s u rv e y fo und th at L G BT w ork e rs w ho fe lt th ey c o uld n ot b e o pen a b out th em se lv e s a t w ork r e p orte d h ig h in cid en ce s o f f e elin g d is tr a cte d o r e x h au ste d o n t h e jo b. 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 3 9/4 8 4 .5 P eo ple W it h D is a b ilit ie s a n d t h e W ork p la ce P eo ple w it h d is a b ilit ie s c o nstit u te a n oth er g ro up o f w ork e rs w ho f a ce d is crim in atio n in t h e U nit e d S ta te s. T he w ork p la ce e x p erie n ce f o r p eo ple w it h d is a b ilit ie s c h an ged d ra m atic a lly in 1 990 w it h t h e p assa ge o f t h e A m eric a n s W it h D is a b ilit ie s A ct ( A D A), w hic h p ro te cte d t h eir c iv il r ig h ts fo r th e ir st tim e. T he A D A is a c iv il r ig h ts la w th at p ro hib it s d is crim in atio n i n e m plo ym en t, p ublic a cco m modatio ns, c o m merc ia l fa cilit ie s, tr a n sp orta tio n, a n d te le co m munic a tio ns o n th e b asis o f d is a b ilit y ( U .S . D ep artm en t o f J u stic e , 2 009). T he A m eric a n s W it h D is a b ilit ie s A ct o f 1 990 T o b e p ro te cte d b y th e A D A, o ne m ust h ave a d is a b ilit y o r b e d is crim in ate d a ga in st b eca u se o f a k n ow n r e la tio nsh ip w it h a n in div id ual w it h a d is a b ilit y . A n in div id ual is c o nsid ere d t o h ave a “ d is a b ilit y ” if s / h e h as a p hysic a l o r m en ta l im pair m en t t h at s u bsta n tia lly l im it s o ne o r m ore m ajo r lif e a ctiv it ie s, h as a r e co rd o f s u ch a n im pair m en t, o r is r e ga rd ed a s h av in g s u ch a n i m pair m en t. ( E EO C & U .S . D ep artm en t o f J u stic e , 2 005, p ara . 6 ) E xa m ple s o f p erso ns b ein g d is crim in ate d a ga in st b eca u se o f a r e la tio nsh ip w it h a p erso n w ho h as a d is a b ilit y c o uld i n clu de s o m eo ne b ein g d en ie d e m plo ym en t b eca u se o f a n e m plo ye r’s u nfo unded a ssu m ptio n t h at t h e a p plic a n t w ould u se e xce ssiv e le ave t o c a re f o r [ th eir d is a b le d ] s p ouse . I t a ls o w ould p ro te ct a n in div id ual w ho d oes v o lu nte er w ork f o r p eo ple w it h A ID S f r o m a d is crim in ato ry e m plo ym en t a ctio n m otiv a te d b y t h at r e la tio nsh ip o r a sso cia tio n. ( E EO C & U .S . D ep artm en t o f J u stic e , 2 005, p ara . 6 5) T it le I o f t h e A D A r e fe rs t o e m plo ym en t p ro vis io ns a n d a p plie s to p riv a te e m plo ye rs o f a t le ast 1 5 e m plo ye es, s ta te a n d l o ca l go ve rn m en ts , em plo ym en t agen cie s, an d la b or unio ns. Sp eci ic a lly , th e act pro hib it s dis crim in atio n in th e r e cru it m en t an d hir in g pro ce ss, pro m otio ns, tr a in in g, pay, so cia l activ it ie s, an d oth er priv ile ges deriv e d fr o m e m plo ym en t. B efo re 2 009 th ere w ere n o d ata th at exa m in ed em plo ym en t o pportu nit ie s fo r p eo ple w it h d is a b ilit ie s. O nce th e s ta tis tic s w ere c o m pile d , h ow eve r, p eo ple w it h d is a b ilit ie s w ere s h ow n to h ave a m uch h ig h er u nem plo ym en t r a te th an t h e n ondis a b le d . F o r e xa m ple , in M arc h 2 014 th e u nem plo ym en t r a te fo r d is a b le d A m eric a n s w as 1 4.5 % , c o m pare d to 6 .5 % f o r t h e n ondis a b le d . T he B ure au o f L ab or S ta tis tic s ( 2 015j) d ein es a p erso n w it h a d is a b ilit y a s h av in g a t le ast o ne o f t h e f o llo w in g c o ndit io ns: is d eaf o r h as s e rio us d if ic u lt y h earin g; is b lin d o r h as s e rio us d if ic u lt y s e ein g e ve n w hen w earin g g la sse s; h as s e rio us d if ic u lt y c o nce n tr a tin g, r e m em berin g, o r m akin g d ecis io ns b eca u se o f a p hysic a l, m en ta l, o r e m otio nal c o ndit io n; h as s e rio us d if ic u lt y w alk in g o r c lim bin g s ta ir s; h as d if ic u lt y d re ssin g o r b ath in g; o r h as d if ic u lt y d oin g e rra n ds a lo ne s u ch a s v is it in g a d octo r’s o fic e o r s h oppin g b eca u se o f a p hysic a l, m en ta l, o r e m otio nal c o ndit io n. A lt h ough t h e A D A d oes n ot r e q uir e e m plo ye rs t o g iv e p re fe re n ce t o d is a b le d c a n did ate s o ve r o th er jo b a p plic a n ts , th ere a re s e ve ra l f e d era l t a x in ce n tiv e s d esig n ed to e n co ura ge e m plo ym en t a n d a cco m modatio ns fo r p eo ple w it h d is a b ilit ie s, i n clu din g t h e S m all B usin ess T a x C re d it , W ork O pportu nit y T a x C re d it , a n d A rc h it e ctu ra l/ T ra n sp orta tio n T a x D ed uctio n. T hese t a x c re d it s a n d t h e a n tid is crim in atio n le gis la tio n h elp im pro ve p ro sp ects f o r d is a b le d w ork e rs. T he e m plo ym en t is su es fa cin g d is a b le d p eo ple h ave n ot b een co m ple te ly re so lv e d , h ow eve r, a s th e u nem plo ym en t s ta tis tic s n ote d a b ove r e ve al. In te stim ony b efo re C ongre ss in 2 011 a b out e ffo rts to p ro m ote h ir in g o f th e d is a b le d in f e d era l a gen cie s, Y vo nne Jo nes, th e d ir e cto r o f S tr a te gic Is su es in th e U .S . G ove rn m en t A cco unta b ilit y O fic e , r e p orte d t h at “ a ttit u din al b arrie rs” ( a s c it e d in S en ate H earin g 1 12-4 6, 2 011) s till le ad to d is crim in atio n a ga in st th e d is a b le d . S h e l a id o ut t h e f o llo w in g e ig h t p ra ctic e s t h at a gen cie s s h ould u se t o m it ig a te d is crim in atio n a ga in st d is a b le d w ork e rs. T hese p ra ctic e s c o uld b e a p plie d t o e ffo rts t o a lle v ia te d is crim in atio n a ga in st o th er m in orit y g ro ups a s w ell: 1 . T o p le ad ersh ip c o m mit m en t is k e y t o im ple m en tin g a n d s u sta in in g i m pro ve m en ts in t h e e m plo ym en t o f in div id uals w it h d is a b ilit ie s. 2 . A cco unta b ilit y is c rit ic a l t o s u cce ss. 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 4 0/4 8 A nte n na/G ett y I m ages P ro vid in g a r e a so n able a cco m mod atio n o ft e n e n ta ils a s im ple a d ju stm en t t o a w ork sta tio n , s u ch a s c h an gin g t h e h eig h t o f a d esk t o it a w heelc h air . 3 . R egu la rly s u rv e y in g t h e w ork fo rc e o n d is a b ilit ie s is su es p ro vid es a gen cie s w it h im porta n t in fo rm atio n o n p ote n tia l b arrie rs. 4 . B ette r c o ord in atio n w it h in a n d a cro ss a gen cie s c o uld im pro ve e m plo ym en t o utc o m es f o r e m plo ye es w it h d is a b ilit ie s. 5 . T ra in in g f o r s ta ff a t a ll le ve ls c a n d is se m in ate le ad in g p ra ctic e s t h ro ugh out a n a gen cy. 6 . C are er d eve lo pm en t o pportu nit ie s in clu siv e o f p eo ple w it h d is a b ilit ie s c a n f a cilit a te a d va n ce m en t a n d in cre ase r e te n tio n. 7 . A le x ib le w ork e n vir o nm en t c a n in cre ase a n d e n han ce e m plo ym en t o pportu nit ie s f o r in div id uals w it h d is a b ilit ie s. 8 . A nd c e n tr a liz in g f u ndin g w it h in a n a gen cy c a n h elp e n su re t h at r e aso nab le a cco m modatio ns a re p ro vid ed . ( a s c it e d in S en ate H earin g 1 12-4 6, 2 011) T he r e a so n able a cco m mod atio n s tip ula tio n o f th e A D A r e q uir e s e m plo ye rs to m ake a d ju stm en ts o r m odi ic a tio ns to th e w ork e n vir o nm en t to e n ab le a p erso n w it h a d is a b ilit y t o p erfo rm r e q uir e d t a sk s. T hese m odi ic a tio ns s h ould ta ke p la ce w hen re cru it in g o r in te rv ie w in g ca n did ate s, ad m in is te rin g ben eit s , desig n in g w ork p la ce e n vir o nm en ts , o r c re atin g p olic y th at d ete rm in es h ow w ork is to b e p erfo rm ed . F o r e xa m ple , if t h e h ir in g p ro ce ss in vo lv e s a d m in is te rin g c a n did ate s a t e st, a re aso nab le acco m modatio n m ig h t be to pro vid e ora l te stin g fo r an a p plic a n t w it h lim it e d vis io n. A noth er re aso nab le w ork p la ce acco m modatio n w ould b e t o a d ju st t h e h eig h t o f a d esk to a llo w w heelc h air a cce ss a t a c o m pute r w ork sta tio n. E xis tin g b uild in gs m ust b e r e m odele d to p ro vid e c u rb c u ts , r a m ps, B ra ille s ig n s, a u to m atic d oors, e le va to rs, a n d w heelc h air -a cce ssib le r e str o om s, if t h ey d o n ot a lr e ad y h ave t h em . U niv e rsa l D esig n U niv e rsa l d esig n is a p opula r a p pro ach t o p ro vid in g a cco m modatio ns f o r p eo ple w it h d is a b ilit ie s. T he c o nce p t in vo lv e s d esig n in g b uild in gs, w ork s p ace s, tr a n sp orta tio n, a n d p ro ducts s o th ey a re a cce ssib le to p eo ple b oth w it h a n d w it h out d is a b ilit ie s. In ste ad o f fo cu sin g o n s p eci ic a cco m modatio ns, th e p re m is e o f u niv e rsa l d esig n is th at a ll d esig n s s h ould i n here n tly a d dre ss d iv e rse a b ilit ie s (L id w ell, H old en , & B utle r, 2 010). F o r e xa m ple , p ro vid in g r a m ps a n d e le va to rs a s w ell a s s ta ir s n ot o nly a ssis ts p eo ple w ho u se w heelc h air s b ut a ls o m ake s lif e e asie r fo r o ld er w ork e rs, d eliv e ry p eo ple w ho c a rry h eav y it e m s, a n d c a re giv e rs w it h y o ung c h ild re n in s tr o lle rs. S eve ra l o rg a n iz a tio ns o ffe r re so urc e a ssis ta n ce fo r u niv e rsa l d esig n an d acco m modatio n. T he Jo b A cco m modatio n N etw ork , fu nded b y th e U .S . D ep artm en t o f L ab or, p ro vid es fr e e c o nsu lt a tio n to e m plo ye rs a n d e m plo ye es fo r s p eci ic w ork p la ce a cco m modatio ns. I t a ls o p ro vid es s te p -b y-s te p in str u ctio ns fo r m akin g tr a in in g m ate ria ls , b usin ess w eb sit e s, a n d w ork s o ftw are a cce ssib le t o p eo ple o f a ll a b ilit ie s. S u ch a ssis ta n ce in m it ig a tin g d is crim in atio n a n d in u ndersta n din g d is crim in atio n’s e ffe cts o ffe rs m an agers a n d o w ners im porta n t t o ols . I n te rse ctio n alit y I n a d dit io n to c o nsid erin g h ow e m plo ye rs a n d in -g ro ups c a n p artic ip ate in a n d p erp etu ate d is crim in atio n, it is a ls o i m porta n t t o c o m pre h en d h ow d if fe re n t m in orit y s ta tu se s c a n i n te rse ct w it h o ne a n oth er a n d r e in fo rc e d is crim in atio n, a ls o k n ow n a s i n te rse ctio n alit y . S o cio lo gis ts w ho d is cu ss in te rse ctio nalit y n ote th at w ork e rs c a n not b e u ndersto od b y t h eir ra ce , so cia l cla ss, g en der, a n d se xu al o rie n ta tio n a lo ne. A s K im berle ́ C re n sh aw (1 991), w ho co in ed th e te rm i n te rse ctio n alit y , n ote s: m an y w om en o f c o lo r… are b urd en ed b y p ove rty , c h ild c a re r e sp onsib ilit ie s, a n d t h e la ck o f jo b s k ills . T hese b urd en s, la rg ely t h e c o nse q uen ce o f g en der a n d c la ss o ppre ssio n, a re t h en c o m pounded b y t h e r a cia lly – d is crim in ato ry e m plo ym en t a n d h ousin g p ra ctic e s w om en o f c o lo r o fte n f a ce , a s w ell a s b y t h e d is p ro portio nate ly h ig h u nem plo ym en t a m ong p eo ple o f c o lo r. ( p p. 1 245–1 246) 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 4 1/4 8 M an agers, u nio n o rg a n iz e rs, a n d o th ers w ho w an t to w ork e ffe ctiv e ly w it h d iv e rse m em bers o f a w ork fo rc e m ust r e co gn iz e h ow s ta tu s id en tit ie s in te rse ct a n d ta ke c a re to a vo id , fo r e xa m ple , e x p ectin g th at a ll d is a b le d w ork e rs w ill h ave t h e s a m e p ersp ectiv e , d esp it e d if fe re n ce s in r a ce , g en der, c la ss, a n d s o o n. 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 4 2/4 8 4 .6 C re atin g a P osit iv e W ork C u lt u re W it h a D iv e rse W ork P opula tio n S in ce b ia s, d is crim in atio n, p re ju dic e , a n d ste re o ty p es o ccu r w it h in to day ’s d iv e rse w ork fo rc e , m an agers m ust w ork h ard er th an e ve r to p ro vid e a p osit iv e w ork c u lt u re . A c u lt u re in w hic h in div id uals “fe el fr e e to b e th em se lv e s, v o ic e t h eir o pin io ns a n d e n ga ge o pen ly in n on-w ork -r e la te d c o nve rsa tio ns, … fe el s a fe fr o m d is crim in atio n a n d b elie ve th ey a re v a lu ed , a cce p te d a n d p art o f a t e am ” is n ece ssa ry t o e m plo ye e w ell- b ein g, b ut it c a n b e c h alle n gin g t o c re ate ( H um an R ig h ts C am paig n F o undatio n, 2 009, p . 1 1). O rg a n iz a tio ns a re in din g, h ow eve r, th at it is n ot o nly w orth th eir in ve stm en t i n t e rm s o f p ro ductiv it y a n d r e cru it in g a n d r e ta in in g ta le n t, b ut it is a ls o c rit ic a l, g iv e n th e d iv e rse d em ogra p hic s o f th e w ork fo rc e ( O ra cle , 2 014). E m plo ye rs a n d e m plo ye es c a n e x p an d a w ork p la ce ’s c u lt u ra l c o m pete n cy s o th at c o w ork e rs c a n b ette r in te ra ct w it h c u sto m ers a n d e ach o th er. E m plo ye es w ho e x h ib it c u lt u ra l c o m pete n ce u ndersta n d t h eir o w n c u lt u re a n d a re o pen to l e arn in g a b out th e c u lt u re s a n d s u bcu lt u re s o f c o w ork e rs a n d c lie n ts , w ork in g e ffe ctiv e ly in c ro ss-c u lt u ra l s it u atio ns. R ese arc h in dic a te s th at in cre asin g co nta ct b etw een d is p ara te gro ups o f ro ugh ly th e sa m e ra n k at w ork re d uce s p re ju dic e , e sp ecia lly w hen t h e c o nta ct in clu des d is co ve rin g s im ila r v a lu es a n d le arn in g o ne a n oth er’s c u sto m s ( W eave r, 2 007). L earn in g a b out h ow in te rse ctio nalit y im pacts w ork e rs c a n a ls o p ro m ote a cce p ta n ce o f d if fe re n ce s a n d fo ste r p osit iv e in te ra ctio ns d esp it e t h em . E q ual O pportu nit y E m plo y m en t A s d is cu sse d e arlie r, th e E EO C is a fe d era l a gen cy c re ate d to e n fo rc e T it le V II o f th e C iv il R ig h ts A ct o f 1 964. T it le V II p ro hib it s e m plo ye r d is crim in atio n a ga in st jo b a p plic a n ts a n d e m plo ye es b ase d o n ra ce , co lo r, n atio nal o rig in , se x , r e lig io n, o r p re v io us c o m pla in ts o f d is crim in atio n th at m ig h t p ro m pt re ta lia tio n. In 1 963 P re sid en t Jo hn F . K en ned y p ro pose d th ese p ro te ctio ns in re sp onse to g ro w in g n atio nal u nre st co nce rn in g ra cia l se gre ga tio n an d w id esp re ad d is crim in atio n. B y t h e 1 960s t h e c iv il r ig h ts m ove m en t h ad e arn ed w id esp re ad p ublic s u pport. L ead ers s u ch a s M artin L uth er K in g Jr . a n d M alc o lm X le d b oyco tts , p ro te sts , a n d m arc h es to p re ssu re g o ve rn m en ts a n d b usin esse s to c o nfr o nt d is crim in atio n a n d p re ss fo r m in orit ie s’ c iv il r ig h ts . In r e sp onse , C ongre ss p asse d , a n d P re sid en t L yn don B . Jo hnso n s ig n ed , th e C iv il R ig h ts A ct o f 1 964, w hic h o utla w ed d is crim in atio n in v o tin g, s ch ools , p ublic fa cilit ie s, b usin esse s o pen to th e g en era l p ublic , a n d b usin esse s in vo lv e d w it h in te rsta te co m merc e , w hic h in clu ded h ote ls , re sta u ra n ts , an d th eate rs. It als o o utla w ed d is crim in atio n b y g o ve rn m en t a n d p riv a te e m plo ye rs a n d e sta b lis h ed th e E EO C to p ro vid e s p eci ic p ath w ay s f o r v ic tim s o f d is crim in atio n t o p ursu e ju stic e . W hen t h e a ct p asse d , s e rio us c o m pro m is e r e n dere d T it le V II’s iv e -m em ber b ip artis a n c o m mis sio n a ll b ut p ow erle ss in e n fo rc in g t h e a n tid is crim in atio n o bje ctiv e s ( E EO C, 2 000b). I n ste ad o f e x te n din g g o ve rn m en t a u th orit y t o p ro te ct c it iz e n s a ga in st d is crim in ato ry p ra ctic e s, t h e t it le o nly a llo w ed e m plo ye es a n d a p plic a n ts w it h “ v a lid ” c o m pla in ts — ca lle d c h arg es — to ile p riv a te la w su it s a ga in st o ffe n din g e m plo ye rs ( E EO C, 2 000a). In o th er w ord s, th e E EO C’s a u th orit y w as lim it e d t o d ete rm in in g t h e v a lid it y o f c o m pla in ts a n d d id n ot in clu de h old in g o ffe n ders a cco unta b le . T he E EO C w as k n ow n a s a “ to oth le ss t ig er” b eca u se o f it s lim it e d a u th orit y . T he a gen cy d id n ot o fic ia lly b egin r e v ie w in g d is crim in atio n c o m pla in ts u ntil 1 965. In th e ir st y e ar a lo ne, h ow eve r, it r e ce iv e d 8 ,8 52 c la im s. O ve r th e n ex t 6 y e ars, th e E EO C a id ed p riv a te la w su it s , d eve lo ped a fr a m ew ork fo r a sse ssin g d is crim in atio n in t h e w ork p la ce , a n d o utlin ed t h e p ara m ete rs f o r e q ual e m plo ym en t o pportu nit y la w s ( E EO C, 2 000a). T he lim it a tio ns o f T it le V II w ere a m en ded w hen P re sid en t R ic h ard M . N ix o n sig n ed th e Eq ual Em plo ym en t Opportu nit y Act of 1972, a llo w in g th e E EO C to s tr e n gth en it s a b ilit y to r e gu la te a n d p ro se cu te e m plo ye rs fo und g u ilt y o f d is crim in ato ry h ir in g, p ro m otin g, o r ir in g p ra ctic e s (W oole y & Pete rs, 2011). The co m mis sio n cu rre n tly e n fo rc e s fe d era l h ir in g la w s fo r all go ve rn m en t p osit io ns h eld b y c iv ilia n s a n d m onit o rs p riv a te b usin esse s co nsis tin g o f 1 5 o r m ore e m plo ye es. In ad dit io n to la w en fo rc e m en t, th e EEO C pro vid es s e rv ic e s t o e m plo ye es w ho h ave s u ffe re d d is crim in atio n. I t a ls o o ffe rs 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 4 3/4 8 P aul B ra dbury /Ca ia im age/ G ett y I m ages T he E EO C e n fo rc e s l a w s t h at p ro te ct p re gn an t w om en f r o m b ein g d is c rim in ate d a ga in st a t t h eir w ork p la ce. o utr e ach an d ed uca tio nal pro gra m s to pre ve n t work p la ce d is crim in atio n ( E EO C, 2 011). A fir m ativ e A ctio n T he te rm a fir m ativ e a ctio n w as ir st fo rm ally u se d in e m plo ym en t p ra ctic e s o n M arc h 6 , 1 961, w hen P re sid en t K en ned y s ig n ed in to la w E xe cu tiv e O rd er 1 0925, w hic h ca lle d fo r a co m mit te e to ove rse e e q ual em plo ym en t opportu nit y in it ia tiv e s. It als o re q uir e d g o ve rn m en t c o ntr a cto rs to a d here to s p eci ic h ir in g p ro vis io ns. T he e xe cu tiv e o rd er s ta te d : T he c o ntr a cto r w ill n ot d is crim in ate a ga in st a n y e m plo ye e o r a p plic a n t f o r e m plo ym en t b eca u se o f r a ce , c re ed , c o lo r, o r n atio nal o rig in . T he c o ntr a cto r w ill t a ke a fir m ativ e a ctio n t o e n su re t h at a p plic a n ts a re e m plo ye d , a n d t h at e m plo ye es a re t r e ate d d urin g e m plo ym en t, w it h out r e ga rd t o t h eir r a ce , c re ed , c o lo r, o r n atio nal o rig in . ( K en ned y, 1 961) T he c o nce p t o f a fir m ativ e a ctio n, la te r a rtic u la te d b y Jo hnso n in 1 965 a t H ow ard U niv e rsit y ’s c o m men ce m en t a d dre ss, w as r o ote d in t h e id ea th at m ere ly c rim in aliz in g d is crim in ato ry p ra ctic e s a n d c la im in g fr e ed om a n d e q ualit y w ould n ot u ndo c e n tu rie s o f in ju stic e . R ath er, p re ssu re t o a ctiv e ly a n d a fir m ativ e ly c o rre ct a cce ss t o o pportu nit y w ould h ave to b e e n acte d a n d e n fo rce d in o rd er t o c re ate e q ualit y in e m plo ym en t, e d uca tio n, a n d s o cie ty ( Jo hnso n, 1 965). A ll la rg e o rg a n iz a tio ns c o nnecte d in a n y w ay to th e fe d era l g o ve rn m en t ( s u ch a s c o lle ges a n d u niv e rsit ie s th at r e ce iv e f e d era l s tu den t a id ), a n d c o m pan ie s w it h 5 0 o r m ore e m plo ye es, m ust e sta b lis h a fir m ativ e a ctio n p ro gra m s t h at s h ow a g o od fa it h e ffo rt to r e cru it q uali ie d m in orit y e m plo ye es. Q uota s h ave r a re ly b een u se d a n d o nly c o m e in to p la y w hen a n o rg a n iz a tio n is p ro ve d u nw illin g to p ut fo rth a g o od fa it h e ffo rt to h ir e q uali ie d m in orit ie s (H arrin gto n, 2 012). B y c h an gin g h ir in g p ra ctic e s a n d e d uca tio nal a d m is sio ns, a fir m ativ e a ctio n o pen ed u p s ig n i ic a n t o pportu nit ie s to m in orit y g ro ups ( L eo nard , 1 984; G arris o n-W ad e & L ew is , 2 004). A fir m ativ e a ctio n in h ig h er e d uca tio n, h ow eve r, h as b een h otly d eb ate d a n d e ve n b an ned in s e ve ra l s ta te s. S o m e p eo ple b elie ve t h at p ro gra m s in vo lv in g a n y s o rt o f p re fe re n ce a re u nw arra n te d a n d s h ould b e ille ga l. O th ers m ain ta in th at s u ch p ro gra m s d o m uch m ore h arm th an g o od, c re atin g a s e n se o f u nfa ir n ess w hen e q ually q uali ie d W hit e c a n did ate s a re t u rn ed a w ay in fa vo r o f a s tu den t fr o m a n u nderre p re se n te d r a cia l m in orit y g ro up. O th ers th in k (d esp it e a b undan t e v id en ce to th e co ntr a ry ) th at su ch p ro gra m s a re n o lo nger n eed ed b eca u se ra cia l d is crim in atio n is n o lo nger a p ro ble m ( S ack s & T hie l, 1 996). B usin ess le ad ers, h ow eve r, h ave d efe n ded a fir m ativ e a ctio n in c o urt c a se s. F o r e xa m ple , in th e S u pre m e C ourt ca se G ru tte r v . B ollin ger ( 2 003) c o nce rn in g th e U niv e rsit y o f M ic h ig a n a fir m ativ e a ctio n p ro gra m s, m ore th an 6 0 F o rtu ne 5 00 c o m pan ie s jo in ed to geth er to w rit e th e S u pre m e C ourt a n a m ic u s b rie f, u rg in g th em to s u pport a fir m ativ e a ctio n p ro gra m s. T hey w ro te : T he e x p erie n ce s o f t h e a m ic i c o rp ora tio ns d em onstr a te t h e n eed f o r t h e c ro ss-c u lt u ra l e d uca tio n t h at a d iv e rse e d uca tio nal in stit u tio n p ro vid es, a s w ell a s t h e t a le n te d d iv e rse g ra d uate s it p ro duce s. T he c h an gin g f a ce o f A m eric a is r e le cte d in t h e m ark e tp la ce , a s b oth t h e w ork p la ce a n d t h e p urc h ase rs o f p ro ducts a n d s e rv ic e s b eco m e in cre asin gly d iv e rse .… T he in div id uals w ho r u n a n d s ta ff t h e a m ic i c o rp ora tio ns m ust b e a b le t o u ndersta n d, le arn f r o m , c o lla b ora te w it h , a n d d esig n p ro ducts a n d s e rv ic e s f o r c lie n te le a n d a s so cia te s f r o m d iv e rse r a cia l, e th nic , a n d c u lt u ra l b ack g ro unds. A m eric a n m ult in atio nal c o rp ora tio ns, in clu din g a m ic i , a re e sp ecia lly a ttu ned t o t h is c o nce rn b eca u se t h ey s e rv e n ot o nly t h e in cre asin gly d iv e rse p opula tio n o f t h e U nit e d S ta te s, b ut r a cia lly a n d e th nic a lly d iv e rse p opula tio ns a ro und t h e w orld . ( B ots fo rd , H am ilt o n, M eh rb erg , & M ay n ard , 2 000, p ara . 1 4) W e w ill d elv e f u rth er in to t o day ’s c o nte m pora ry, d iv e rse w ork fo rc e in t h e f o llo w in g c h ap te rs. I n C hap te r 5 w e w ill fo cu s o n t h e in cre asin g im porta n ce o f e d uca tio n a n d d em ogra p hic t r e n ds in t h e w ork fo rc e . I n p artic u la r, w e w ill d is cu ss s o cia l i s su es c o nce rn in g im mig ra n ts , e x-p ris o ners, a n d v e te ra n s a s t h ey r e la te t o t h e w ork p la ce . 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 4 4/4 8 I m age S ource / G ett y I m ages W hat W ould Y o u D o? D iv e rsit y a n d H ir in g D ecis io ns S u ppose y o u a re a h um an r e so urc e s m an ager in a la rg e c o rp ora tio n w it h o fic e s th ro ugh out th e U nit e d S ta te s. Y o u h ave b een a sk e d t o s p eak t o s e ve ra l r e gio nal m an agers a b out th e im porta n ce o f h ir in g a d iv e rse w ork fo rc e . W hat w ould y o u s a y t o t h em ? H ow w ould y o u c o nvin ce t h em t h at a d iv e rse w ork fo rc e is g o od f o r b usin ess? S p otlig h t o n W ork p la ce R ese arc h : D eva h P age r’s W ork o n R acia l D is crim in atio n i n E m plo ym en t D eva h Pager, a pro fe sso r of so cio lo gy an d public polic y at H arv a rd U niv e rsit y , has co nducte d re se arc h th at re ve als th e c o ntin ued p re se n ce o f ra cia l d is crim in atio n in em plo ym en t. In o ne stu dy (P ager, W este rn , & Su gie , 2009), sh e an d her c o lle agu es stu die d th e im pact o f ra ce an d eth nic it y on B la ck , W hit e , a n d H is p an ic jo b a p plic a n ts in N ew Y o rk C it y . B la ck , W hit e , a n d H is p an ic “ te ste rs” r e sp onded to h elp w an te d a d s fo r jo bs in t h e lo w -w age se cto r. Each ap plic a n t w as of sim ila r age an d p hysic a l a p peara n ce , a n d e ach h ad th e s a m e le ve l o f e d uca tio nal a tta in m en t a n d q uali ic a tio ns. A m ong e q ually q uali ie d W hit e a n d B la ck jo b a p plic a n ts , W hit e s r e ce iv e d a c a llb ack a b out th e p osit io n o r jo b o ffe r 3 1% o f th e t im e, c o m pare d to 2 5.2 % fo r H is p an ic s a n d 1 5.2 % fo r B la ck s. U nex p ecte d ly , g iv e n th e e x te n t o f d is crim in atio n a ga in st t h ose w it h c rim in al r e co rd s, t h e t r e n d r e m ain ed t h e s a m e w hen P ager a n d h er c o lle agu es g ave th e W hit e t e ste rs c rim in al r e co rd s. W hit e s w it h c rim in al r e co rd s w ere ju st a s lik e ly , if n ot m ore lik e ly , th an B la ck a p plic a n ts w it h ou t a c rim in al r e co rd t o g et a c a llb ack o r jo b o ffe r. T he r e su lt s a ls o in dic a te d th at a p plic a n ts o f c o lo r w ho w ere o ffe re d a n in te rv ie w te n ded to b e s te ere d to lo w er l e ve l p osit io ns ( fo r e xa m ple , b usb oy in ste ad o f w ait e r), w here as W hit e a p plic a n ts w ere m ore lik e ly to b e d ir e cte d t o w ard h ig h er le ve l p osit io ns. P ager’s s tu die s p ro vid e p ow erfu l e v id en ce o f r a cia l a n d e th nic d is crim in atio n in t h e jo b m ark e t. T hey a ls o p ro vid e a w ake -u p ca ll fo r b oth e m plo ye rs a n d p ote n tia l e m plo ye es to b e o n th e l o oko ut f o r a n d t o m it ig a te s u ch d is crim in atio n. 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 4 5/4 8 S u m mary a n d R eso u rc e s S u m mary A w ork p la ce ’s c u lt u re c o m pris e s t h e r u le s, v a lu es, a n d a rtif a cts t h at g o ve rn b eh av io r. D om in an t c u lt u re s, s u bcu lt u re s, a n d c o unte rc u lt u re s e x is t t o geth er in s o cie ty a n d in t h e w ork p la ce . R acia l, e th nic , a n d c u lt u ra l d iv e rsit y c o ntin ue t o in cre ase in t h e U nit e d S ta te s a n d a re e x p ecte d t o d o s o f o r t h e f o re se eab le f u tu re a s t h e p opula tio n b eco m es m ore d iv e rse . W hen r a cia l, e th nic , a n d c u lt u ra l d if fe re n ce s a re m is h an dle d , t h ey c a n le ad t o s te re o ty p in g a n d d is crim in atio n. D is crim in atio n in t h e w ork p la ce b ase d o n s e x , g en der, a n d s e xu al o rie n ta tio n is w id ely d ocu m en te d . I n o ve r h alf o f a ll s ta te s, it r e m ain s le ga l f o r e m plo ye rs t o d is crim in ate o n t h e b asis o f s e xu al o rie n ta tio n o r g en der id en tit y . T he p assa ge o f t h e A m eric a n s W it h D is a b ilit ie s A ct in 1 990 p ro te cte d t h e c iv il r ig h ts o f p eo ple w it h d is a b ilit ie s f o r t h e ir st t im e. P eo ple w it h d is a b ilit ie s s till s tr u ggle , h ow eve r, w it h d is crim in atio n in h ir in g a n d e m plo ye r r e sis ta n ce t o p ro vid in g r e aso nab le a cco m modatio ns. E m plo ye rs a n d e m plo ye es c a n d im in is h p re ju dic e a n d d is crim in atio n in t h e w ork p la ce b y e x p an din g t h eir c u lt u ra l c o m pete n cie s. C ase S tu dy : T he E EO C, a V ete ra n , a n d D is a b ilit y D is crim in atio n T he d escrip tio n o f t h e E EO C la w su it b elo w p ro vid es a n e xa m ple o f s o m e o f th e ty p es o f d is crim in atio n d is a b le d v e te ra n s f a ce in t h e w ork p la ce t o day. E EO C S u es E ZE FLO W U SA f o r D is a bilit y D is c rim in atio n P ip e F it tin gs M an ufa ctu re r F ir e d a V ete ra n W it h P TSD I n ste ad o f G iv in g H im B rie f U npaid M ed ic a l L eave a s a R easo nab le A cco m modatio n, F ed era l A gen cy S ay s P IT TSB URG H – E ZE FLO W U SA , a p ip e it tin gs m an ufa ctu re r, v io la te d f e d era l la w w hen it r e fu se d t o g iv e u npaid le a ve t o a v e te ra n w it h p ost-t r a u m atic s tr e ss d is o rd er ( P TSD ) a n d ir e d h im a s a r e su lt o f h is d is a bilit y , t h e U .S . E qu al E m plo ym en t O pportu nit y C om mis sio n ( E EO C) c h arg ed in a la w su it it a n nou nce d t o day. A cco rd in g t o t h e E EO C’s la w su it , A dam B ra n t, a U .S . M arin e C orp s v e te ra n w ho s e r ve d in b oth I r a q a n d A fg han is ta n , w ork ed f o r E ZE FLO W U SA , a C an adia n -b ase d c o m pan y, a t it s U .S . h ea dqu arte rs in N ew C astle , P a., a s a m ain te n an ce t e ch n ic ia n . W hile t h ere , h e e x p erie n ce d s e iz u re s la te r d ete rm in ed t o b e c a u se d b y P TSD . B ra n t p ro vid ed t h e c o m pan y’s h u m an r e so u rce s r e p re se n ta tiv e w it h a n ote f r o m h is n eu ro lo gis t r e q u estin g t h at B ra n t b e o ff w ork f o r s ix w eek s, a n d s p eci ic a lly r e str ic tin g h im f r o m d riv in g, h eig hts a n d w ork in g w it h h ea vy m ach in er y d u rin g t h at p erio d. T he E EO C a lle g ed t h at B ra n t r e q u este d s ix w eek s o f u npaid m ed ic a l le a ve , a r e q u est t h at E ZE FLO W U SA d en ie d b eca u se B ra n t w as s till a p ro batio n ary e m plo ye e, a n d t h at t h e c o m pan y s u bse q u en tly t e rm in ate d h im . T he E EO C f u rth er c h arg ed t h at E ZE FLO W U SA m ain ta in s a p olic y o f p ro vid in g u p t o 2 6 w eek s o f p aid l e a ve t o n on -p ro batio n ary e m plo ye es. S u ch a lle g ed c o n du ct v io la te s t h e A m eric a n s w it h D is a bilit ie s A ct ( A D A), w hic h p ro hib it s e m plo ye rs f r o m ir in g a n in div id u al b eca u se o f h is d is a bilit y . T he A D A a ls o r e q u ir e s e m plo ye rs t o p ro vid e a r e a so n able a cco m modatio n , in clu din g g ra n tin g u npaid m ed ic a l le a ve , t o a n e m plo ye e w it h a d is a bilit y u nle ss t h e c o m pan y c a n s h ow it w ou ld b e a n u ndu e h ard sh ip t o d o s o . T he E EO C ile d s u it ( E EO C v . E ZEFLO W U SA , I n c. , C i v il A ctio n N o. 2 :1 4-c v-0 0527-M PK ) in U .S . D is tr ic t C ou rt f o r t h e W este rn D is tr ic t o f P en nsy lv a n ia , a ft e r ir st a tte m ptin g t o r e a ch a v o lu nta ry p re -lit ig a tio n s e ttle m en t t h ro u gh it s c o n cilia tio n p ro ce ss. “ T he E EO C is s tr o n gly c o m mit te d t o e n su rin g t h at v e te ra n s w it h d is a bilit ie s a re t r e a te d f a ir ly in t h e w ork pla ce ,” s a id R eg io n al A tto rn ey D eb ra M . L aw re n ce o f t h e E EO C’s P hila delp hia D is tr ic t O fic e . “ T his c a se d em on str a te s t h at t h e E EO C w ill e n ga ge in lit ig a tio n w hen w arra n te d : w hen a n e m plo ye r r e fu se s t o a bid e 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 4 6/4 8 b y it s le g a l o blig a tio n t o p ro vid e a r e a so n able a cco m modatio n t o k eep a v e te ra n w it h a d is a bilit y g a in fu lly e m plo ye d .” E EO C D is tr ic t D ir e cto r S p en ce r H . L ew is , J r . a dded , “ M r. B ra n t s e r ve d h is c o u ntr y h on ora bly a s a M arin e. G ra n tin g u npaid le a ve t o a v e te ra n w it h a d is a bilit y is n ot o n ly t h e d ece n t t h in g t o d o— fe d era l la w r e q u ir e s i t . U nfo rtu nate ly , t h e c o m pan y r e fu se d t o e ve n c o n sid er t h is e a sy w ay t o a cco m modate M r. B ra n t a n d i n ste a d ir e d a q u ali ie d v e te ra n s im ply b eca u se o f a d is a bilit y — whic h is c o u nte rp ro du ctiv e a s w ell a s u nla w fu l a n d u nfa ir . T hat is w hy t h is la w su it is im porta n t t o t h e p u blic in te re st .” O n N ov. 1 6, 2 011, t h e E EO C h eld a p u blic h ea rin g, e n tit le d “ O ve rco m in g B arrie rs t o t h e E m plo ym en t o f V ete ra n s w it h D is a bilit ie s.” I n t h at m eetin g, t h e C om mis sio n h ea rd t e stim on y f r o m a p an el o f e x p erts o n t h e u niq u e n eed s o f v e te ra n s w it h d is a bilit ie s t r a n sit io n in g t o c iv ilia n e m plo ym en t. A s a n o u tg ro w th o f t h at m eetin g, t h e E EO C is su ed t w o r e vis e d p u blic a tio n s a ddre ssin g v e te ra n s w it h d is a bilit ie s a n d t h e A D A. T he G uid e f o r E m plo ye rs e x p la in s h ow p ro te ctio n s f o r v e te ra n s w it h s e r vic e -c o n necte d d is a bilit ie s d if fe r u nder t h e A D A a n d t h e U nif o rm ed S er vic e s E m plo ym en t a n d R eem plo ym en t R ig hts A ct ( U SE RRA), a n d h ow e m plo ye rs c a n p re ve n t d is a bilit y -b ase d d is c rim in atio n a n d p ro vid e r e a so n able a cco m modatio n s. T he G uid e f o r W ou nded V ete ra n s a n sw ers q u estio n s t h at v e te ra n s w it h s e r vic e -r e la te d d is a bilit ie s m ay h ave a bou t t h e p ro te ctio n s t h ey a re e n tit le d t o w hen t h ey s e ek t o r e tu rn t o t h eir f o rm er jo bs o r lo ok f o r c iv ilia n j o bs. T he p u blic a tio n a ls o e x p la in s t h e k in ds o f a cco m modatio n s t h at m ay b e n ece ssa ry t o h elp v e te ra n s w it h d is a bilit ie s o bta in a n d s u cce ssfu lly m ain ta in e m plo ym en t. T hin k A bou t I t: 1 . T he G uid e f o r W ounded V ete ra n s s ta te s t h at d is a b le d v e te ra n s a re e n tit le d t o “ le ave f o r t r e atm en t, r e cu pera tio n, o r t r a in in g r e la te d t o [ th eir ] d is a b ilit y .” G iv e n t h at f a ct a n d t h e o th er in fo rm atio n p re se n te d i n t h e c h ap te r, d o y o u t h in k it w as le ga l f o r E ZEFLO W t o t e rm in ate A dam B ra n t? 2 . H ow d oes t h is c a se illu str a te t h e m erit s o f h av in g a n E EO C? 3 . D id le arn in g a b out t h is c a se in lu en ce y o ur o ve ra ll o pin io n o f t h e E EO C? I f s o , in w hat w ay ? I f n ot, w hy n ot? 4 . I f y o u w ere a p erso nnel d ir e cto r, h ow m ig h t h earin g a b out t h is c a se a ffe ct y o ur w ork ? S ource : U S E qual E m plo y m en t O pportu nit y C o m mis sio n. ( 2 014c). E EO C s u es E ZE FLO W U SA f o r d is a bilit y d is crim in atio n. P re s s r e le a se. R etr ie v ed f r o m h ttp :/ /w ww.e eo c.g o v/eeo c/n ew sro om /re le ase/4 -2 3-1 4.c fm ( h ttp :/ /w ww.e eo c.g o v/eeo c/n ew sro om /re le ase/4 -2 3-1 4.c fm ) D is cu ssio n Q uestio n s 1 . T o w hat s u bcu lt u re s d o y o u b elo ng? H ow h ave t h e r u le s, v a lu es, a n d a rtif a cts o f y o ur s u bcu lt u re (s ) in lu en ce d y o ur a b ilit y t o a d ap t t o t h e d om in an t c u lt u re a t y o ur w ork p la ce o r y o ur c o lle ge? 2 . D o y o u t h in k y o u h ave b een o r m ig h t e ve r b e t h e v ic tim o f “ g a te ke ep in g,” in w hic h y o ur r e su m e w ould b e d is ca rd ed b eca u se o f y o ur p erc e iv e d r a ce , e th nic it y , a n d/o r g en der? W hy o r w hy n ot? 3 . H ow c a n s te re o ty p es h urt p ro ductiv it y in t h e w ork p la ce ? I f y o u w ere a m an ager in a d iv e rse w ork s e ttin g, h ow w ould y o u w ork t o a lle v ia te t h e n ega tiv e im pact o f s te re o ty p es? 4 . A re y o u s u rp ris e d t h at le ss t h an h alf o f U .S . s ta te s h ave la w s t h at p ro te ct w ork e rs a ga in st d is crim in atio n b ase d o n s e xu al o rie n ta tio n? W hy o r w hy n ot? H ow d o y o u t h in k s u ch la w s im pact w ork fo rc e p ro ductiv it y ? 5 . I m agin e y o u h ave b een a sk e d t o le ad a p ro je ct w it h a d iv e rse t e am o f f e m ale w ork e rs. H ow w ould y o u p ut y o ur k n ow le d ge o f in te rse ctio nalit y t o w ork ? 6 . W hy d o m an y b usin ess le ad ers s u pport a fir m ativ e a ctio n in h ig h er e d uca tio n? D o y o u a gre e t h at a fir m ativ e a ctio n in c o lle ge a d m is sio ns is g o od f o r b usin ess? W hy o r w hy n ot? A ddit io n al R eso u rc e s Z ap pos, a n oth er e xa m ple o f a c o m pan y w it h it s o w n s u bcu lt u re h ttp :/ /u s.g re a tr a te d .c o m /za p pos ( h ttp :/ /u s.g re atr a te d .c o m /zap pos) 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 4 7/4 8 R ep ort o n s e xu al a ssa u lt o f u ndocu m en te d f a rm work e rs h ttp :/ /w ww.n pr.o rg /2 013/1 1/0 5/2 43219199/sile n ce d -b y-s ta tu s-fa rm -w ork ers-fa ce -r a p e-s e x u al-a bu se ( h ttp :/ /w ww.n pr.o rg /2 013/1 1/0 5/2 43219 199/sile n ce d -b y-s ta tu s-fa rm -w ork ers-fa ce -r a p e-s e x u al- a b use ) T ip s f o r m an agin g a d iv e rse w ork fo rc e h ttp :/ /w ww.c c l.o rg /le a d ersh ip /p df/ p ublic a tio n s/ lia /lia 28_1 B rid gin g.p df ( h ttp :/ /w ww.c c l.o rg /le ad ersh ip /p df/ p ub lic atio ns/ lia /lia 2 8_1 B rid gin g.p df) E xa m ple s o f d is crim in atio n in t h e w ork p la ce h ttp :/ /ed uca tio n -p orta l.c o m /a ca d em y/le sso n /w hat-is -r a cia l-d is c rim in atio n -in -t h e-w ork p la ce -e x a m ple s- s ta tis tic s-c a se s.h tm l# le sso n (h ttp :/ /ed ucatio n-p orta l.c o m /acad em y/le sso n/w hat-is -r a cia l- d is c rim in atio n-in -th e-w ork p la ce – e x a m ple s-s ta tis tic s-c ase s.h tm l# le sso n) T he r e su lt s o f a 2 014 s tu dy o n t h e im pact o f g en der s te re o ty p es in t h e w ork p la ce h ttp :/ /w ww.c a ta ly st.o rg /m ed ia /ca ta ly st-s tu dy-e x p ose s-h ow -g en der-b ase d -s te re o ty p in g-s a bota ges-w om en – w ork p la ce ( h ttp :/ /w ww.c ata ly st.o rg /m ed ia /cata ly st-s tu dy-e x p ose s-h ow -g en der-b ase d -s te re o ty p in g-s a b ota ges-w om en -w ork p la ce ) T he b en eit s o f h ir in g p eo ple w it h d is a b ilit ie s h ttp :/ /w ww.f o rb es.c o m /sit e s/ ju dyo w en /2 012/0 5/1 2/a -c o st-b en eit -a n aly sis -o f-d is a bilit y -in -t h e-w ork p la ce ( h ttp :/ /w ww.f o rb es.c o m /sit e s/ ju dyo w en /2 012/0 5/1 2/a-c o st-b en eit -a n aly sis -o f-d is a b ilit y -in -th e-w ork p la ce /) R eso urc e s f o r e m plo ye rs a n d e m plo ye es in s u pport o f w ork p la ce a cco m modatio ns f o r e m plo ye es w it h d is a b ilit ie s h ttp s:/ /a sk ja n .o rg ( h ttp s:/ /ask ja n .o rg ) S tr a te gie s f o r d eve lo pin g c u lt u ra lly c o m pete n t le ad ers a n d m an agin g w ork fo rc e s a cro ss c u lt u re s a n d la n gu age b arrie rs h ttp :/ /w ww.b u sin essw eek .c o m /a d se ctio n /d iv e rsit y /d iv e rse co m pet.h tm ( h ttp :/ /w ww.b usin essw eek .c o m /ad se ctio n/d iv e rsit y /d iv e rse co m pet.h tm ) K ey T erm s c o u nte rc u lt u re c u lt u ra l c o m pete n ce d is c rim in atio n d om in an t c u lt u re e th nic it y g en der i n -g ro u p m arg in aliz ed o u t-g ro u p p lu ra lis m p re ju dic e r a ce r e a so n able a cco m mod atio n s e x s te re o ty p in g 7 /2 7/2 017 P rin t h ttp s://c onte nt.a shfo rd .e du/p rin t/A U SO C402.1 5.1 ?sectio ns= navp oin t- 1 ,n avp oin t- 2 1,n avp oin t- 2 2,n avp oin t- 2 3,n avp oin t- 2 4,n avp oin t- 2 5,n avp oin t- 2 6,n avp oin t- 2 7,n av … 4 8/4 8 s u bcu lt u re u niv e rsa l d esig n
Unions versus Human Resources
Required Resources Text Korgen, K. O., Korgen, J. O., & Giraffe, V. (2015). Social issues in the workplace (2nd ed.) [Electronic version]. Retrieved from https://content.ashford.edu/ Chapter 3: Socioeconomic Trends and the Workforce Chapter 4: Workplace Culture and Workforce Diversity Articles Penn, S. (n.d.). Cultural communication barriers in the workplace (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.. Houston Chronicle. Retrieved from http://smallbusiness.chron.com/cultural-communication-barriers-workplace-13888.html This article explores the ways that misunderstandings can occur in cross-cultural communication. Review this article in order to successfully complete this week’s “Cross-Cultural Communication in the Workplace” discussion.Accessibility Statement does not exist.Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. Skinner, W. (1981, September). Managing human resources (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/1981/09/managing-human-resources This article supports the Week One and Week Two text readings by presenting the historical development of human resources management as a practice in organizations. Review this article to help you complete this week’s “Unions Versus Human Resources” assignment.Accessibility Statement does not exist.Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. Ulrich, D. (1998, January). A new mandate for human resources (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/1998/01/a-new-mandate-for-human-resources This article supports the Week One and Week Two text readings by presenting the role and effectiveness of human resources management as a practice in organizations. Review this article to help you complete this week’s “Unions Versus Human Resources” assignment.Accessibility Statement does not exist.Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. VonHoffman, C. (1998, May). Does this company need a union? (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/1998/05/does-this-company-need-a-union This article supports the Week One and Week Two text readings by sharing a case study which presents the dilemma of a company as it prepares for a union vote and reflects upon its human resources management failings that led to this event. Review this article to help you complete this week’s “Unions Versus Human Resources” assignment.Accessibility Statement does not exist.Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. Multimedia Dr Deborah Swallow. (2012, February 20). Intercultural communication adventure with Little Pilot (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. [Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/PSt_op3fQck This video discusses some of the challenges that can arise in cross-cultural communication. Review this video in order to successfully complete this week’s “Cross-Cultural Communication in the Workplace” discussion. TranscriptAccessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. markdcatlin. (2007, April 11). Workplace health and safety history, to the 1920s (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. [Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/3eFwNk7I0hg This video supports the Week One and Week Two text readings by visually depicting the historical issues of worker safety and rights up to 1920. Review this article to help you complete this week’s “Unions Versus Human Resources” assignment. TranscriptAccessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. markdcatlin. (2008, June 27). Workplace health and safety history 1930s to WWII (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. [Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/e_WUt90rN2Q This video supports the Week One and Week Two text readings by visually depicting the historical issues of worker safety and rights from 1930 up to WWII. Review this article to help you complete this week’s “Unions Versus Human Resources” assignment.Accessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. markdcatlin. (2008, June 27). Workplace health and safety history WWII to OSHA (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. [Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/kc-ivXUp6ns This video supports the Week One and Week Two text readings by visually depicting the historical issues of worker safety and rights from WWII to the creation of OSHA. Review this article to help you complete this week’s “Unions Versus Human Resources” assignment. TranscriptAccessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. Monash Business School. (2012, April 22). Human resources management (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. [Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/9ZLbSk1Te68 This video supports the Week One and Week Two text readings by visually depicting the unique roles that human resources professionals fulfill in an organization. Review this article to help you complete this week’s “Unions Versus Human Resources” assignment. TranscriptAccessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. Oppix Productions Inc. (2008, September 3). America’s heroes at work (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. [Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/7HVOsFS99CY This video discusses the U.S. Department of Labor’s new online resources to support employers in the employment of veterans with traumatic brain injuries and post-traumatic stress disorder. Review this video in order to successfully complete this week’s “Reasonable Accommodations in the Workplace” discussion. TranscriptAccessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. Steve Wolfson. (2010, February 14). Voices of union- Voices of young workers (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. [Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/hTfjsKNOc2o This video supports the Week One and Week Two text readings by discussing the challenges of engaging contemporary workers in union involvement. Review this article to help you complete this week’s “Unions Versus Human Resources” assignment. TranscriptAccessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. Websites The Hofstede Centre. (n.d.). Countries (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.. Retrieved from http://geert-hofstede.com/countries.html This site provides country-level data related to the six dimensions of culture. Use this data to make cross-national comparisons in this week’s “Cross-Cultural Communication in the Workplace” discussion.Accessibility Statement does not exist.Privacy Policy does not exist. The Hofstede Centre. (n.d.). National culture (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.. Retrieved from http://geert-hofstede.com/national-culture.html This site describes Professor Geert Hofstede’s research on how values in the workplace are influenced by culture. Review this site to successfully complete this week’s “Cross-Cultural Communication in the Workplace” discussion.Accessibility Statement does not exist.Privacy Policy does not exist. U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (n.d.). Understanding your employment rights under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA): A guide for veterans (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.. Retrieved from http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/publications/ada_veterans.cfm This site offers information pertaining to the employment rights of veterans covered by the Americans with Disabilities Act. Review this video in order to successfully complete this week’s “Reasonable Accommodations in the Workplace” discussion.Accessibility Statement does not exist.Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.  
Unions versus Human Resources
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