Please see instructions attached. the tutor needs to response one of the questions. The subject is Public Administration. Thank you, Customer

Please see instructions attached. the tutor needs to response one of the questions. The subject is Public Administration. Thank you, Customer
Assignment #1– What is Public Administration? Required Readings: Chapter 1 in Textbook 1 (See attached) Chapter 3 in Textbook 2 (See attached) Assignment: Based on the reading materials for this week, please write a short essay as a response to one of the following questions: What in your ideas are the three words that would most describe public administration? Why? What do you expect public administration to offer apart from what has been described in the reading materials? 3. Do you think the current government has achieved what is expected to offer in public administration as mentioned in the reading materials? Prepare an original and thoughtful (including references) response of 400 words. Student participation includes the following attributes: Comments show evidence of a thorough reading and analysis of the material(s) — this means the inclusion of references Points are relevant to the discussion in terms of increasing everyone’s understanding and are not merely a regurgitation of the readings.  Care is taken to distinguish among different kinds of information; i.e. facts, opinions, assumptions, or inferences.  There is a willingness to test new ideas rather than remain cautious and safe.  Submissions utilize correct word usage, spelling, and punctuation. INSTRUCTIONS TO THE WRITER: Please read the required readings. See attached materials. Follow the instructions above and response to one of the questions. You should quote at least three works mentioned in the required readings. The essay should be no less than 400 words in length. Be sure to include the question you select in the document. Sources cited should be from reading documents as well. Thank you, Customer
Please see instructions attached. the tutor needs to response one of the questions. The subject is Public Administration. Thank you, Customer
3 W hat I s P ubli c A dm in is tr a tio n ? T he g o vern m en t’s r e sp on se t o t h e e n orm ou s d ev asta tio n o f S u persto rm S an dy i n N ovem ber 2 012 w as a h uge c h an ge f r o m t h e p ro b le m s t h at s u rro u n ded H urric a n e K atr in a’s a ssa u lt o n t h e G ulf C oast i n 2 005. A s w it h t h e c a se o f L ore tta A bru sc a to , h ere , a id ed b y N ew Y ork N atio n al G uard t r o op s, g o vern m en t a t a ll le v els r e sp on ded f a r m ore e ffe c tiv ely t o c it iz e n s’ n eed s, t h an ks t o t h e c a re fu l a n aly sis t h at h ap pen ed i n r e sp on se t o t h e f a ilu re s s e v en y ea rs e a rli e r. J o h n M oore /G etty I m ag e 137 C hap te r O bje c tiv es Understa n d w hat m ak es p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n “ p u bli c ” Dis c u ss w hat p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n i s Look a t t h e d eep h is to ric a l d eb ate s t h at h av e s h ap ed t h e s tu dy o f p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n T he a g ele ss d eb ate s a b ou t bu re a u cr a cy h as a lw ay s f o rm ed t h e c o re o f p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n . T he t e rm bu re a u cr a cy i t s e lf h as d eep r o ots , i n f o u rte en th -c en tu ry F ra n ce. A t t h e C ham ber o f A cco u n ts , f ie ld a d m in is tr a to rs p la ced t h eir f in an cia l r e c o rd s o n a b ro w n w oole n c lo th , la b u re , w hic h c o vere d t h e t a b le f a cin g t h e k in g’s a u dit o rs. T he r o om c a m e t o b e c a lle d “ th e b u re a u ,” a n d t h e w ay t h ese o ffic ia ls d id t h eir w ork b ec a m e k n ow n a s “ b u re a u cra cy .” F ro m t h e k in g’s p oin t o f v ie w , t h e m ost i m porta n t t h in g, o f c o u rse , w as m ak in g s u re t h at t h e f in an cia l r e c o rd s w ere c o rre c t a n d t h at n o o n e w as c h ea tin g t h e c ro w n, s o “ b u re a u cra cy ” q u ic k ly b ec a m e c o n nec te d w it h “ acco u n ta b ili t y .” I t d id n ’t t a k e lo n g f o r t h e t e rm t o t a k e o n t h e n eg ativ e m ea n in g w e s o m etim es a sso cia te w it h i t . I n a n 1 836 n ovel, F re n ch a u th or H on oré d e B alz a c c h ara cte riz e d t h e b u re a u cra cy a s “ a g ig an tic p ow er m an ip u la te d b y d w arfs ” a n d a s “ th at h ea v y c u rta in h un g b etw een t h e g o od t o b e d on e a n d h im w ho c o m man ds i t .” 1 B ure a u cra cy i s s o m eth in g w e a ll lo ve t o h ate — an d i t ’s s o m eth in g w e c a n ’t l i v e w it h ou t. T he t e n sio n s g o b ack m an y c en tu rie s. T here i s a d eep c o n tr a d ic tio n b u rie d i n t h is a g ele ss d eb ate . 2 O n o n e h an d, b u re a u cra cy i s v ie w ed a s a d ev ic e t h at c rip ple s g o vern m en t: r e d -ta p e-b ou n d c iv il s e rv an ts a re s e en a s i n effic ie n t, u n re sp on siv e, n eg ativ e, b ore d , i m poli t e , a n d u n help fu l t o c it iz e n s s e ek in g s e rv ic es. O n t h e o th er h an d, b u re a u cra cy i s f e a re d f o r t h e p ow er i t c o n cen tr a te s: o ffic ia ls s o m etim es a re s e en a s a ll- to o-e ffic ie n t i n g ath erin g p ow er a n d a rb it r a rily d ec id in g m atte rs w it h ou t p ro vid in g c it iz e n s d u e p ro cess. H ow c a n b oth b e t r u e: a b u re a u cra cy s o i n effic ie n t i t c a n ’t a cco m pli s h m uch o f a n yth in g b u t a ls o s o p ow erfu l t h at i t t h re a te n s o u r li b erty ? T his i s n ot o n ly t h e c en tr a l p ro b le m o f b u re a u cra cy i n m od ern li f e . I t’s t h e a g ele ss d ile m ma o f b u re a u cra cy i t s e lf . A t i t s c o re , t h e t e rm bu re a u cr a cy h as a n eu tr a l m ea n in g. I n deed , b u re a u cra cy i s n ot e v en a p u bli c -s e c to r t e rm — it ’s a b asic d esc rip tio n f o r t h e o rg an iz a tio n a n d s tr u ctu re o f c o m ple x o rg an iz a tio n s, a n d p riv ate c o m pan ie s h av e b u re a u cra cie s, t o o. A pple a n d M ic ro so ft , t h e A m eric a n R ed C ro ss a n d t h e A m eric a n C an cer S ocie ty , t h e p ow er c o m pan y a n d F aceb ook a ll a re b u re a u cra cie s. T he o ld est c o n tin uou sly f u n ctio n in g b u re a u cra cy i n t h e w orld i s t h e R om an C ath oli c C hurc h . ( T he N ew T esta m en t r e c o rd s t h at a ft e r t h e a sc en sio n o f J e su s, t h e n ew c h urc h i m med ia te ly c re a te d a f o rm al o rg an iz a tio n t o c a rry o n t h e w ork o f i t s c h aris m atic f o u n der.) I n t h is b ook, w e w ill u se bu re a u cr a cy t o r e fe r t o c o m ple x p u bli c o rg an iz a tio n s: t h e f o rm al, r a tio n al s y ste m o f r e la tio n s a m on g p erso n s v este d w it h a d m in is tr a tiv e a u th orit y t o c a rry o u t p u bli c p ro gra m s. I n Chap te r 4 w e e x am in e t h is i n te rp re ta tio n o f b u re a u cra cy — an d s o m e o f i t s a lt e rn ativ es— more f u lly . 138 Even t h ou gh t h e t e rm bu re a u cr a cy i t s e lf i s n eu tr a l, t h e n eg ativ e m ea n in gs a re n ev er f a r aw ay . T he o ft e n c o n tr a d ic to ry i m ag es o f b u re a u cra cy p oin t t o v ery r e a l p ro b le m s o f la rg e- sc a le a d m in is tr a tio n . T hey a ls o s h ap e t h e p oli t ic s of p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n . A s p re sid en tia l ca n did ate s, b oth J im my C arte r a n d R on ald R ea g an c a m paig n ed o n b u re a u cra cy -b ash in g th em es; B ill C li n to n d ea lt w it h c a lls t o s h rin k t h e b u re a u cra cy ; b oth P re sid en ts B ush ca m paig n ed o n a c o n se rv ativ e a g en da t o r e d u ce g o vern m en t ( e v en t h ou gh t h ey b oth actu ally i n cre a se d i t ) ; a n d J o h n M cC ain a n d B ara ck O bam a s p arre d o ver w ho c o u ld b est pro m ote c h an ge i n t h e w ay W ash in gto n d oes b u sin ess. O bam a a n d M it t R om ney r e p la y ed man y o f t h e s a m e t h em es i n 2 012. I n t h e 2 016 p re sid en tia l c a m paig n , a n a rm y o f ca n did ate s c o m pete d t o c o n vey t h e s tr o n gest a n tib u re a u cra cy t h em e. A nd t h is i s n ’t j u st a fe d era l p h en om en on , o f c o u rse . C an did ate s a t a ll le v els o f g o vern m en t o ft e n w ork h ard t o mak e t h e c a se t h at t h ey c a n c o m e i n a n d f ix w hat a ils g o vern m en t. The n eg ativ e i m ag e o f b u re a u cra cy i s u n iv ersa l. A f o re ig n p rim e m in is te r o n ce c o m pla in ed , “C re a tin g t h e a p pea ra n ce o f w ork , t a k in g c o ver b eh in d h ollo w r h eto ric , b u re a u cra cy m ay hold b ack t h e i m pro vem en t o f t h e e c o n om ic m ec h an is m , d am pen i n dep en den ce a n d in it ia tiv e, a n d e re c t b arrie rs t o i n novatio n .” A s e c o n d s a id , “ B ure a u cra tis m r e m ain s a se rio u s p ro b le m i n t h e p oli t ic a l li f e o f o u r p arty a n d s ta te . T he o versta ffin g, o verla p pin g an d u n w ie ld in ess o f G overn m en t o rg an s, c o n fu sio n o f t h eir r e sp on sib ili t ie s a n d b u ck – passin g a re . . . m ajo r c a u se s o f b u re a u cra tis m . W e m ust t h ere fo re r e fo rm t h ese o rg an s f r o m to p t o b otto m .” T he f ir st s p ea k er w as p rim e m in is te r o f t h e f o rm er S ovie t U nio n ; t h e se c o n d, a n a ctin g p rim e m in is te r o f t h e P eo p le ’s R ep u bli c o f C hin a. 3 G overn m en t o ffic ia ls aro u n d t h e w orld s h are t h e b asic i n stin ct t o r e fo rm “ b u re a u cra cy .” 4 If a lm ost e v ery o n e h ate s b u re a u cra cy a n d r e d t a p e, w hy d on ’t w e a b oli s h t h em ? T he a n sw er is t h at g o vern m en t c a n ’t d eli v er c o m ple x g o od s a n d s e rv ic es a n y o th er w ay — an d, n o m atte r how m uch t h ey c o m pla in , c it iz e n s e x p ec t t h at t h e w ork will g et d on e. C om ple x it y a n d r e d ta p e a re p art o f a ll la rg e o rg an iz a tio n s. T hat’s e v en m ore t h e c a se f o r g o vern m en t, w here pu bli c p oli c y e m bra ces m an y c o m ple x a n d c o m petin g g o als . 5 W e m ig h t n ot m uch li k e pay in g t a x es o r d ea li n g w it h r u le s, b u t w e u su ally li k e m uch o f t h e g o vern m en t w e g et a n d re sis t e ffo rts t o c u t b ack o n t h e s e rv ic es w e r e c eiv e. A m eric a n s w an t b u re a u cra cy c u t— ex cep t f o r th eir b u re a u cra cy a n d t h e p ro gra m s t h at s e rv e th em . T he c h alle n ge o f p u bli c ad m in is tr a tio n r e v o lv es a ro u n d t h ese d ile m mas. 139 T he M ea n in g o f P ubli c A dm in is tr a tio n D esp it e t h e lo n g-s ta n din g i m porta n ce o f pu bli c a d m in is tr a tio n , a n aly sts a n d s c h ola rs h av e n ev er a g re ed o n a c o m mon d efin it io n . 6 I n a s y ste m t h at r a n ges f r o m d eli v erin g m ail, c o lle c tin g t r a sh , a n d li c en sin g m oto r v eh ic le s t o la u n ch in g c a m era s a n d s p acec ra ft o n M ars, d is p atc h in g P ea ce C orp s v o lu n te ers a ll o ver t h e w orld , h elp in g c it iz e n s r e c o ver f r o m h urric a n es, a n d t r a ck in g d an gero u s s to rm s w it h s a te lli t e s, a c o n cis e d efin it io n i s i m possib le . O ne a p pro ach m ig h t b e b re a k in g p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n i n h alf , d efin in g ad m in ist r a tio n a n d t h en pu bli c , b u t t h at d oesn ’t w ork . S ch ola rs h av e s o m etim es u se d p h ra se s li k e a d m in ist r a tio n i s e x ecu tin g , b u t t h at p h ra se n eed s f u rth er d efin it io n . O th er w rit e rs c h ara cte riz e a d m in is tr a tio n a s c o op era tiv e h um an a ctio n t h at h as a h ig h d eg re e o f r a tio n ali t y , w hic h m ax im iz e s t h e r e a li z a tio n o f c erta in g o als . 7 B ut t h is f o rm ula tio n c o u ld i n clu de p eo p le w ho u se t e x t m essa g es t o c re a te a f la sh m ob . S till o th er w rit e rs, o p era tin g a t a le ss a b str a ct le v el, s a y t h at a d m in is tr a tio n i s c o n cern ed w it h “ h ow , n ot w hat,” w it h “ m ea n s, n ot e n ds,” w it h “ p ro cess, n ot s u bsta n ce,” w it h “ effic ie n cy , n ot o th er v alu es.” B ut t h is a p pro ach o n ly p ro vo kes m ore d eb ate s, r a th er t h an p ro vid in g a c le a r d efin it io n . A b ette r s ta rtin g p oin t f o r u n dersta n din g t h e m ea n in g o f pu bli c a d m in is tr a tio n i s t o d is tin gu is h i t f r o m priv a te a d m in is tr a tio n . W e b eg in b y e v alu atin g t h e a rg u m en t t h at a d m in is tr a tio n i s a d m in is tr a tio n w here v er i t e x is ts , w heth er i n t h e p u bli c o r t h e p riv ate s e c to r. N ex t w e e x am in e p oli c y e x ec u tio n v ersu s poli c y m ak in g ( o r p oli c y f o rm ula tio n ). T his s e p ara te s t h e a d m in is tr a tiv e p ro cesse s, i n w hic h g o vern m en t a d m in is tr a tio n s h are s s im ila rit ie s w it h p riv ate a d m in is tr a tio n , f r o m t h e d is tin ctly p u bli c n atu re o f g o vern m en ta l d ec is io n s. F in ally , w e e m ph asiz e t h e w ay s t h at a d m in is tr a tiv e r e sp on sib ili t y i n p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n d if fe rs i n b oth f o rm a n d c o n te n t f r o m i t s a n alo g i n p riv ate e n te rp ris e s. O f c en tr a l i m porta n ce t o p u bli c b u re a u cra cie s, a d m in is tr a tiv e r e sp on sib ili t y d efin es t h e v ery e sse n ce o f o u r p u zzle — an d o f t h is b ook. 140 P ubli c v ersu s P riv ate A dm in is tr a tio n P ubli c a d m in is tr a tio n i s pu bli c : i t i s t h e a d m in is tr a tio n o f g o vern m en ta l a ffa ir s. Y et i t i s a ls o a d m in ist r a tio n , a n a ctiv it y e sse n tia l t o a ll la rg e o rg an iz a tio n s. F or y ea rs, e x p erts h av e d eb ate d t h e q u estio n s: A re i t s b asic f e a tu re s t h e s a m e a s o th er t y p es o f a d m in is tr a tio n ? I s i t s im ply a s u bse t o f m ore g en eric m an ag em en t i s su es? O r d oes i t h av e s p ec ia l, d is tin ctly p u bli c e le m en ts t h at r e q u ir e s e p ara te a tte n tio n ? T his , a ft e r a ll, i s a c en tr a l p u zzle i n t h e F li n t w ate r c a se , w it h w hic h w e b eg an t h is b ook. S ev era l s c h ools o f t h ou gh t s e ek t o a n sw er t h ese q u estio n s. A g en eric a p pro ach t o a d m in is tr a tio n b eg in s w it h s o cio lo gis ts w ho s p ec ia li z e i n o rg an iz a tio n al t h eo ry , a lo n g w it h m an y s c h ola rs o f m an ag em en t f r o m b u sin ess s c h ools . A t t h e m ost f u n dam en ta l le v el, s o m e o rg an iz a tio n al t h eo ris ts c o n te n d t h at a d m in is tr a tio n i s a d m in is tr a tio n , w hate v er i t s s e ttin g, a n d t h at t h e p ro b le m s o f o rg an iz in g p eo p le , le a d in g t h em , a n d s u pply in g t h em w it h r e so u rc es t o d o t h eir j o b s a re a lw ay s t h e s a m e. 8 M ore p ra ctic a lly o rie n te d t h in kers h av e a rg u ed t h at t h at “ p oli t ic a l c o n fli c t i s a t t h e c en te r o f m an ag em en t li f e ” ; t h at m an ag em en t i s a lw ay s f u n dam en ta lly a b ou t m an ag in g t h at c o n fli c t, r e g ard le ss o f i t s o rg an iz a tio n al s e ttin g; a n d t h at s u ch c o n fli c t m an ag em en t i s t h e c o re o f a d m in is tr a tio n , p u bli c a n d p riv ate . 9 M ost b ro ad ly , B arry B oze m an h as a rg u ed t h at “ all o rg an iz a tio n s a re p u bli c b ec a u se p u bli c a u th orit y a ffe c ts s o m e o f t h e b eh av io r o r p ro cesse s o f a ll o rg an iz a tio n s.” T hus, o rg an iz a tio n s a re n eit h er p u re ly p u bli c n or p u re ly p riv ate ; b u t a ll o rg an iz a tio n s, B oze m an c o n te n ds, s h are p u bli c a n d p riv ate f e a tu re s i n dep en den t o f t h eir l e g al o r f o rm al s ta tu s. 10 I n f a ct, a le a d in g B rit is h p oli t ic a l s c ie n tis t, W illi a m A . R ob so n , h as n ote d t h at “ m od ern A m eric a n t h eo ry i s h ea v ily c o m mit te d t o t h e v ie w t h at o n e c a n d is c u ss e v ery k in d o f a d m in is tr a tio n i n a g en era li z e d m an ner,” b y s e ek in g t o u n dersta n d t h e f u n dam en ta l f e a tu re s o f a d m in is tr a tio n . 11 O ver t im e, i n f a ct, t h e d is tin ctio n b etw een t h e p u bli c a n d p riv ate s e c to rs h as g ra d u ally b ec o m e m ore b lu rre d . A s D wig h t W ald o p oin te d o u t i n 1 980, “ In t h e U nit e d S ta te s— an d I b eli e v e m uch m ore w id ely — th ere i s a m ovem en t a w ay f r o m a s h arp d is tin ctio n b etw een p u bli c a n d priv a te , a n d to w ard a b lu rrin g a n d m in gli n g o f t h e t w o.” 12 A s g o vern m en t b ec o m es m ore i n vo lv ed i n b u sin ess, a n d a s m ore b u sin ess o rg an iz a tio n s a re i n co rp ora te d i n to t h e p ro vis io n o f p u bli c s e rv ic es, s u ch b lu rrin g i s i n ev it a b le . B ut t h at, o f c o u rse , o n ly c o m pli c a te s o u r c en tr a l q u estio n : I s t h ere s o m eth in g d is tin ctly pu bli c a b ou t p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n ? P riv ate -s e c to r m an ag ers w ho m ove i n to t o p p u bli c -s e c to r p osit io n s h av e u n iv ersa lly f o u n d l a rg e, c ru cia l d if fe re n ces b etw een t h e t w o s e c to rs. 13 S ch ola rs h av e e m ph asiz e d t w o i m porta n t d is tin ctio n s. F ir st, a n d m ost c ru cia lly , i s t h e what : p u bli c o rg an iz a tio n s d o t h e p u bli c ’s b u sin ess— th ey a d m in is te r la w . S ec o n d, t h ere i s t h e how : c o m pare d w it h p riv ate c o m pan ie s, p u bli c o rg an iz a tio n s u se f u n dam en ta lly d if fe re n t p ro cesse s a n d w ork i n v ery 141 dif fe re n t e n vir o n m en ts . 14 Div in g i n to D ata : M an ag em en t o f t h e M ed ic a re a n d M ed ic a id P ro gra m s Cre a te d a s p art o f L yn don B . J o h n so n ’s “ G re a t S ocie ty ” p ro gra m s i n 1 965, M ed ic a re a n d M ed ic a id h av e bec o m e t w o o f t h e m ost i m porta n t e le m en ts o f g o vern m en t. C on sid er t h ese b asic f a cts a b ou t t h e p ro gra m s. 142 143 Questio n s 1 . Are y o u s u rp ris e d a t t h e r e la tiv ely s m all n um ber o f f e d era l g o vern m en t e m plo yees r e sp on sib le f o r man ag in g s u ch la rg e p ro gra m s? 2 . Who d o y o u t h in k i s r e sp on sib le f o r m an ag in g t h e p ro gra m ’s o p era tio n s, s in ce f e d era l e m plo yees a re not ( h in t: f o r-p ro fit a n d n on pro fit h osp it a ls , c li n ic s, a n d h ea lt h c a re p ro vid ers)? 3 . Do y o u t h in k t h at t h e i m pro p er p ay m en ts a n d e rro r r a te s r e p re se n t a s e rio u s p ro b le m ? W hat in fo rm atio n d o y o u n eed t o a n sw er t h is q u estio n ? 4 . What s te p s w ou ld b e r e q u ir e d t o a tta ck t h is p ro b le m ? T he C rit ic a l R ole o f P ubli c A uth orit y . T he m ost f u n dam en ta l d is tin ctio n b etw een p u bli c a n d p riv ate o rg an iz a tio n s i s t h e r u le o f l a w . I n g en era l, p u bli c o ffic ia ls m ust d o w hat t h e la w r e q u ir e s, a n d t h ey c a n not d o a n yth in g t h at t h e la w d oes n ot. P riv ate o ffic ia ls c a n c h oose t o d o w hat t h ey li k e, a s lo n g a s t h e la w d oes n ot f o rb id i t . E very a ctio n t a k en b y a p u bli c a d m in is tr a to r u lt im ate ly “ m ust b e t r a cea b le t o a le g al g ra n t o f a u th orit y ; t h ose o f p riv ate f ir m s n eed n ot b e,” a s H aro ld F . G ortn er, J u li a n ne M ah le r, a n d J e a n ne B ell N ic h ols o n a rg u e. Man ag ers o f p riv ate f ir m s c a n g en era lly t a k e a n y a ctio n , e sta b li s h a n y p oli c y , o r use a n y m ea n s o f o p era tio n n ot s p ec if ic a lly p ro h ib it e d . P ubli c m an ag ers, i n co n tr a st, m ay n ot d o s o i n t h e a b se n ce o f s p ec if ic g ra n ts o f a u th orit y . P riv ate org an iz a tio n s c a n a ct u n le ss p ro sc rib ed o r f o rb id den ; p u bli c o n es m ay a ct on ly i f th e a u th orit y i s g ra n te d . A s a v ete ra n p u bli c m an ag er r e m ark ed . . . “ F or t h e priv ate o rg an iz a tio n , i t i s a m atte r o f ‘g o u n til I s a y s to p ’; b u t t o t h e p u bli c man ag er t h e m essa g e i s ‘d on ’t g o u n le ss I t e ll y o u t o .’” 15 P ubli c a d m in ist r a tio n e x ist s t o i m ple m en t t h e la w , a n d t h e c o n stit u tio n al s y ste m c re a te s t h e a u th orit y f o r d oin g s o . I n t h e A m eric a n s y ste m , a u th orit y f lo w s f r o m t h e p eo p le t o t h ose t h ey e le c t t o g o vern t h em . O f c o u rse , w hen a le g is la tu re p asse s a la w a n d a n e x ec u tiv e s ig n s i t , t h e la w d oes n ot i m ple m en t i t s e lf . T hat i s t h e t a sk t h e le g is la tu re d ele g ate s t o a n a d m in is tr a to r, a n d i t i s t h is c h ain o f a u th orit y , f lo w in g f r o m t h e p eo p le t h ro u gh e le c te d i n stit u tio n s t o t h e p u bli c a d m in is tr a to r, t h at m ak es p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n d is tin ctiv ely p u bli c . F ait h fu l e x ec u tio n o f t h ese la w s i s t h e h ig h est c a lli n g o f p u bli c a d m in is tr a to rs. I t i s t h e c o re o f a d m in is tr a tiv e r e sp on sib ili t y . P ubli c m an ag em en t s c h ola r S te v en K elm an p oin ts t o a f u n dam en ta l d if fe re n ce b etw een p u bli c a n d p riv ate m an ag em en t. A ll o rg an iz a tio n s, h e s a y s, m ust b ala n ce g o als a n d c o n str a in ts . G oals a re t h e g o od t h in gs o rg an iz a tio n s t r y t o d o— th e v alu e t h ey p ro d u ce, t h e o b je c tiv es t h ey s e ek t o a cco m pli s h . C on str a in ts a re t h e n eg ativ e f o rc es t h ey m ust w ork 144 aro u n d a n d t h e r u le s t h ey m ust o b ey i n p u rsu in g t h eir g o als . I d ea lly , o rg an iz a tio n s w ou ld fin d t h e r ig h t b ala n ce t h at e n su re s g o od r e su lt s a n d s tr o n g a cco u n ta b ili t y . F or p riv ate org an iz a tio n s, t h e b ala n ce le a n s t o w ard t h e g o als a n d, w it h f e w er c o n str a in ts , f r e e-w heeli n g ta ctic s c a n s o m etim es le a d t o f in an cia l d is a ste r, a s t h e 2 008 f in an cia l c ris is s h ow ed . W it h ad dit io n al c o n str a in ts , g o vern m en t s o m etim es s tr u ggle s t o a cco m pli s h t h e o b je c tiv es t h at poli c y m ak ers s e t f o r i t . T his , K elm an s a y s, i s “ th e K atr in a p ro b le m ”— re d t a p e t h at r e str a in s th e a b ili t y o f g o vern m en t t o d o i t s j o b . P ubli c a n d p riv ate o rg an iz a tio n s b oth s h are t h e n eed to b ala n ce g o als a n d c o n str a in ts , b u t t h e f o rc es u n derly in g t h eir o p era tio n s t e n d t o p u sh th em i n d if fe re n t d ir e c tio n s. T hat d yn am ic , i n t u rn , f r a m es v ery d if fe re n t p ro b le m s f o r th eir le a d ers a n d f o r t h e p eo p le t h ey s e rv e. 16 Publi c li b ra rie s a re a n i m porta n t g o vern m en t- fu n ded s e rv ic e. I n m an y c o m mun it ie s, li k e th is o n e i n W ilm in gto n , N orth C aro li n a, p u bli c li b ra rie s a re n ot o n ly r e p osit o rie s o f b ooks —th ey a re i n cre a sin gly g ate w ay s t o t h e i n fo rm atio n a g e. AP P hoto /T he S ta r-N ew s, M att B orn Pro cesse s t h at M ak e P ubli c A dm in is tr a tio n P ubli c . Alt h ou gh t h ese d if fe re n ces a re n ot f ix ed i n la w , t h ere t y p ic a lly a re i m porta n t d is tin ctio n s betw een p u bli c a n d p riv ate o rg an iz a tio n al p ro cesse s. 17 H ere a re t h e m ost f u n dam en ta l dif fe re n ces: Care er s e rv ic e . W here a s p riv ate -s e c to r o rg an iz a tio n s t e n d t o b e le d b y i n div id u als w ho 145 dev o te t h eir c a re ers t o t h e o rg an iz a tio n , A m eric a n p u bli c b u re a u cra cie s t e n d t o b e hea d ed b y r e la tiv e a m ate u rs w hose t e n ure i s o f s h ort d u ra tio n . A ssis ta n t s e c re ta rie s i n fe d era l d ep artm en ts , f o r e x am ple , t y p ic a lly s e rv e o n ly e ig h te en m on th s a n d s p en d much o f t h eir t im e i n o ffic e s im ply le a rn in g t h eir j o b s. Perfo rm an ce m ea su re s. T he p riv ate s e c to r h as t h e m ark et i n w hic h t o t e st i t s perfo rm an ce. F ew p u bli c -s e c to r o rg an iz a tio n s, b y c o n tr a st, h av e a n y “ d ir e c t w ay o f ev alu atin g t h eir o u tp u ts i n r e la tio n t o t h e c o st o f t h e i n pu ts u se d t o m ak e t h em ,” a s Anth on y D ow ns p u ts i t . 18 F or p u bli c a d m in is tr a to rs, c o m pli a n ce w it h t h e la w i s t h e ult im ate perfo rm an ce m ea su re , b u t la w s o ft e n a re v ag u e a n d g iv e li t tle g u id an ce. Com petin g s t a n dard s. W here a s e ffic ie n cy i s t h e u lt im ate p riv ate s ta n dard , p u bli c ad m in is tr a to rs a re e x p ec te d t o m an ag e b oth e ffic ie n tly a n d e q u it a b ly . T hese t w o sta n dard s o ft e n c o m pete : w hat i s f a ir o ft e n i s n ot t h e m ost e ffic ie n t, a n d v ic e v ersa . A s ec o n om is t A rth ur O ku n n ote s, t h e b ala n ce b etw een e q u ali t y a n d e ffic ie n cy i s “ th e b ig tr a d eo ff.” 19 Publi c s c r u tin y. F ar m ore t h an i n t h e p riv ate s e c to r, p u bli c a d m in is tr a to rs w ork u n der pu bli c s c ru tin y. P ubli c a d m in is tr a to rs la b or u n der la w s w hose v ery t it le s, s u ch a s “G overn m en t i n t h e S u n sh in e,” u n derli n e t h e r o le o f p u bli c oversig h t , c o verin g b oth in te rn al a n d e x te rn al o p era tio n s. T his “ g o ld fis h -b ow l e ffe c t” i s i n s ta rk c o n tr a st w it h th e m uch m ore li m it e d p u bli c s c ru tin y t h at p riv ate o rg an iz a tio n s r e c eiv e. D ea li n g wit h t h e m ed ia h as lo n g b een a f e a tu re o f p u bli c a d m in is tr a tiv e a ctiv it y . 20 Persu asi o n . I n t h e p riv ate s e c to r, m an ag ers t e n d t o m an ag e b y a u th orit y . T hey g iv e ord ers a n d e x p ec t t h em t o b e o b ey ed . I n t h e p u bli c s e c to r, b y c o n tr a st, ad m in is tr a tio n d ep en ds f a r m ore o n p ersu asio n a n d t h e b ala n cin g o f c o n fli c tin g poli t ic a l d em an ds. Sco p e o f a u th orit y . G overn m en t o ffic ia ls a re le g ally r e q u ir e d t o a d m in is te r t h e la w — an d t h e f e d era l Antid efic ie n cy A ct e x p li c it ly f o rb id s o ffic ia ls f r o m s p en din g m on ey on a n y p u rp ose n ot e x p li c it ly au th oriz ed b y la w . 21 ( T his i s w hat f o rc es t h e go vern m en t t o s h ut d ow n i f C on gre ss f a ils t o p ass a b u dget o n t im e. G overn m en t offic ia ls m ay n ot s p en d a n y m on ey , e v en t o t u rn o n t h e li g h ts o r u se t h eir c o m pu te rs, if C on gre ss h as n ot a p pro ved i t .) I n t h e p riv ate s e c to r, b y c o n tr a st, o ffic ia ls a re allo w ed t o d o a n yth in g n ot e x p li c it ly fo rb id den b y la w . 22 Oversi g h t. P ubli c a d m in is tr a to rs m ust a n sw er n ot o n ly t o t h eir s u perio rs b u t a ls o t o le g is la to rs a n d t h e c o u rts . A dm in is tr a to rs m ust a p pea r b efo re le g is la tiv e c o m mit te es to e x p la in t h eir a ctiv it ie s a n d m ust a n sw er c o m pla in ts r a is e d i n c o u rt. I f t h e p riv ate se c to r h as o n e b otto m li n e— th e a n nual o r q u arte rly f in an cia l s ta te m en t— th e p u bli c se c to r h as s e v era l: a cco u n ta b ili t y t o h ig h er-le v el a d m in is tr a tiv e o ffic ia ls , t o t h e c h ie f ex ec u tiv e, t o le g is la to rs, t o t h e c o u rts , a n d u lt im ate ly t o t h e p u bli c . We t e n d s o m etim es t o s e p ara te p u bli c a n d p riv ate a ctiv it ie s b y t h e p ro fit m otiv e. T o b e su re , t h is i s a n i m porta n t d if fe re n ce, b u t i t d oes n ot c le a rly d is tin gu is h t h e t w o s e c to rs. Priv ate o rg an iz a tio n s s o m etim es p u t o th er g o als b efo re p ro fit m ak in g. S om e non go vern m en ta l o rg an iz a tio n s a re non pro fit a n d e x is t t o a d van ce s o cia l a g en das. O n t h e 146 oth er h an d, s o m e p u bli c o rg an iz a tio n s, s u ch a s t h e U .S . P osta l S erv ic e, s im ula te t h e m ark et by i m posin g f e es a n d c h arg es a n d ( tr y t o ) b re a k e v en . I n f a ct, r e fo rm ers h av e t r ie d t o m ak e pu bli c o rg an iz a tio n s m ore e ffic ie n t b y p u sh in g m ore m ark et- b ase d s tr a te g ie s o n p u bli c org an iz a tio n s. Most f u n dam en ta lly , h ow ev er, p u bli c o rg an iz a tio n s a re p u bli c b ec a u se t h ey a d m in is te r t h e la w a n d b ec a u se t h eir e x is te n ce s p rin gs f r o m t h e la w . M ore o ver, p u bli c o rg an iz a tio n s ty p ic a lly o p era te i n a d if fe re n t e n vir o n m en t f r o m t h at o f p riv ate o rg an iz a tio n s. W alla ce Say re o n ce w ry ly s u ggeste d t h at “ b u sin ess a n d p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n a re a li k e o n ly i n a ll un im porta n t r e sp ec ts .” 23 P ubli c a d m in is tr a tio n i s pu bli c b ec a u se i t d oes t h e p u bli c ’s bu sin ess, a s d efin ed i n la w s p asse d o n b eh alf o f t h e p eo p le . 147 P oli c y E xec u tio n v ersu s P oli c y F orm atio n P ubli c a d m in is tr a tio n s h are s w it h p riv ate a d m in is tr a tio n m an y b asic f e a tu re s o f p oli c y e x ec u tio n . F ro m m an ag in g c o m pu te r s y ste m s t o p ro cessin g f o rm s, t h e b asic w ork o ft e n i s s im ila r. B ut p u bli c -s e c to r e x ec u tio n d if fe rs f u n dam en ta lly i n t h e g o als t o b e s e rv ed a n d t h e s ta n dard s b y w hic h i t s a ch ie v em en ts a re j u dged . I n deed , p art o f w hat m ak es p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n p u bli c i s i t s e x ec u tio n o f t h e w ill o f t h e p eo p le a s d efin ed b y g o vern m en ta l i n stit u tio n s. B ec a u se p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n c o n tr ib u te s t o t h e s h ap in g a n d e x ec u tio n o f p oli c ie s, i t i s o ft e n v ery d if fe re n t i n deed f r o m p riv ate a d m in is tr a tio n . W e lo ok f ir st a t t h e m ore f a m ili a r f u n ctio n — poli c y e x ec u tio n . P oli c y E xec u tio n . C on sid er w hat i t m ea n s w hen w e s a y t h at t h e g o vern m en t h as “ ad op te d ” a p oli c y . I n o u r s y ste m , t h is n orm ally m ea n s t h at t h e e le c te d p oli c y m ak ers h av e e n acte d a la w f o rb id din g, d ir e c tin g, o r p erm it tin g m em bers o f t h e s o cie ty t o b eh av e i n s p ec if ie d w ay s. T hen w hat h ap pen s? T he la w i s m ere ly a t e x t p rin te d o n p ap er. T he t a sk o f p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n i s t o t r a n sla te t h e p rin t f r o m s ta tu te b ooks i n to c h an ged b eh av io r b y m em bers o f s o cie ty — i n div id u als , g ro u ps, o rg an iz a tio n s, a n d b u sin esse s— in o th er w ord s, t o c o n vert w ord s i n to a ctio n , f o rm i n to s u bsta n ce. E xec u tio n o f p oli c y i s a c o m ple x t a sk . I t m ea n s e x p an din g s o m e i n div id u als ’ o p portu n it ie s b y e x te n din g g o vern m en ta l s e rv ic es a n d p ro te c tio n s t o t h em . I t m ea n s r e g u la tin g s o m e i n div id u als ’ f r e ed om b y d ra w in g t a x es f r o m t h em , d is c o verin g a n d p ro se c u tin g t h ose w ho e n gag e i n f o rb id den b eh av io rs, g ra n tin g o r d en yin g p erm is sio n t o e n gag e i n c erta in a ctiv it ie s ( fo r e x am ple , li c en sin g r a d io a n d t e le v is io n s ta tio n s a n d s e lli n g p re sc rip tio n d ru gs), a n d m an ip u la tin g t h e e n vir o n m en t o f s u bsid ie s a n d i n te re st r a te s. T he g o vern m en t a d m in is te rs s o m e e n te rp ris e s i t s e lf , e it h er a s m on op oli e s o r a s c o m petit o rs o f p riv ate e n te rp ris e s: lo ca l li b ra rie s a n d t h e S ocia l S ec u rit y A dm in is tr a tio n f u n ctio n la rg ely a s m on op oli e s; t h e U .S . P osta l S erv ic e a n d t h e T en nesse e V alle y A uth orit y c o m pete w it h p riv ate c o m pan ie s. R efo rm ers h av e i n cre a sin gly s o u gh t t o b rin g p riv ate c o m petit io n i n to l o ca l s c h ools , a n d p u bli c s c h ools i n cre a sin gly h av e t o c o m pete w it h p riv ate s c h ools a n d p are n ts s c h ooli n g t h eir c h ild re n a t h om e. T he g o vern m en t a ls o a d m in is te rs t h e d efe n se e sta b li s h m en t a n d f o re ig n a ffa ir s, i n clu din g h un dre d s o f o u tp osts o ver t h e w orld . T he r a n ge i s i m men se , a n d t h e p atte rn m ix es o ld a n d n ew c o n cern s. A uth oriz in g t h ese g o vern m en ta l a ctiv it ie s, g iv in g p oli c y d ir e c tio n , a n d p ro vid in g t h e n ec essa ry r e so u rc es a re a m on g t h e c en tr a l t a sk s o f t h e e le c tiv e le g is la tu re a n d c h ie f e x ec u tiv e. B ut t h is m ere ly p erm it s s o m eth in g t o h ap pen ; i t d oes n ot mak e s o m eth in g h ap pen . A dm in is tr a tio n t r a n sla te s p ap er d ec la ra tio n s o f i n te n t i n to r e a li t y . I t s h ap es t h e b eh av io r o f c it iz e n s t o m atc h p oli c y g o als a n d d eli v ers t h e b en efit s p ro m is e d i n le g is la tio n . 148 Adm in is tr a tio n a s e x ec u tio n c a n not b e t a k en f o r g ra n te d . W ea k o r u n re sp on siv e ad m in is tr a tio n w ill e n fe eb le t h e p oli t ic a l s y ste m . F or e x am ple , i n m an y d ev elo p in g co u n tr ie s t h e c rit ic a l p ro b le m i s n ot s o m uch t h e g o vern m en t’s p oli t ic a l i n sta b ili t y a s i t i s th e g o vern m en t’s i n ca p acit y t o c a rry o u t i t s d ec is io n s. P ubli c p oli c ie s, n o m atte r h ow b old or i n novativ e, a re w orth le ss i f g o vern m en t c a n not c a rry t h em o u t. W hen H urric a n e K atr in a su bm erg ed N ew O rle a n s i n 2 005, o ffic ia l g o vern m en ta l p oli c y w as t o p ro vid e h elp q u ic k ly , bu t t h e g o vern m en t f a ile d , n ot b ec a u se i t s o ffic ia ls d id n ot w an t t o h elp b u t b ec a u se ex ec u tin g t h e p oli c y p ro ved t r e m en dou sly c o m ple x . F iv e y ea rs la te r, m uch o f t h e G ulf Coast w as u n der a ssa u lt f r o m B P’s o il s p ill. E very o n e w an te d i t t o s to p — th at w as t h e c le a r go vern m en ta l p oli c y — bu t i t t o ok m on th s t o f ig u re o u t h ow . T he O bam a a d m in is tr a tio n desp era te ly w an te d i t s h ea lt h c a re r e fo rm t o w ork , b u t w hen i t s w eb sit e w en t li v e o n Octo b er 1 , 2 013, t h e s it e w as s o f la w ed t h at a lm ost n o o n e c o u ld s ig n u p f o r i n su ra n ce. Mak in g p oli c y d oes n ot e n su re t h at p oli c ie s p ro d u ce r e su lt s . Poli c y F orm atio n . Adm in is tr a tio n ’s s e c o n d r o le i s t o h elp d ec is io n m ak ers f o rm p oli c y . I ts r o le p la y s o u t a t tw o s ta g es: ( 1 ) b efo re t h e le g is la tu re a n d c h ie f e x ec u tiv e h av e m ad e t h e p oli c y d ec is io n s f o r whic h t h ey ’r e r e sp on sib le a n d ( 2 ) a ft e r e le c te d o ffic ia ls h av e e n acte d s ta tu te s o r i s su ed ex ec u tiv e o rd ers, a n d t h en d ele g ate d t o a d m in is tr a to rs t h e j o b o f i n te rp re tin g t h ese a ctio n s. In t h e f ir st s ta g e, p ro p osa ls f o r n ew la w s f lo w f r o m m an y s o u rc es, a n d t h e s p ec ia l e x p ertis e of a d m in is tr a tiv e a g en cie s m ak es t h em p rim e p la y ers. G overn m en t a g en cie s p osse ss m uch fa ctu al i n fo rm atio n a b ou t t h eir s p ec if ic f ie ld , r e ta in an e x p ert s ta ff t o a n aly ze d ata , d is c o ver th e d efe c ts i n e x is tin g s ta tu te s a ft e r a p ply in g t h em , a n d e x h ib it d ev o tio n t o t h e p ro gra m ’s ob je c tiv es. O ft e n , t h ou gh n ot a lw ay s, t h e a g en cy i s t r u ste d a s a le ss b ia se d s o u rc e o f in fo rm atio n t h an o th er a v aila b le s o u rc es, s u ch a s o rg an iz e d i n te re st g ro u ps. In r e c en t y ea rs, t w o d ev elo p m en ts h av e e n han ced a d m in is tr a to rs’ r o le i n t h is e a rly s ta g e o f poli c y m ak in g. F ir st, a s p oli c y h as b ec o m e e v er m ore t e c h n ic a l, s o h as t h e s p ec ia li z e d co m pete n ce o f a d m in is tr a tiv e s ta ffs . R eg u la tin g o il w ells a n d b u ild in g b rid ges, f o r e x am ple , must b e g u id ed b y s o p h is tic a te d i n fo rm atio n , a n aly sis , a n d a d vic e f r o m e n gin eers. E xp ert kn ow le d ge a n d a d vic e a re e sse n tia l t o p oli c y d ev elo p m en t f o r n atio n al d efe n se w ea p on ry , sp ace e x p lo ra tio n , p u bli c h ea lt h , r e se a rc h a n d d ev elo p m en t, e d u ca tio n , p overty , u rb an re n ew al, e n erg y, a ir a n d w ate r p ollu tio n , p oli c e, f ir e , s a n it a tio n , w ate r, a n d a h ost o f o th er pro gra m a re a s. W it h in g o vern m en t, m ost e x p erts a re i n t h e a d m in is tr a tiv e a g en cie s. Sec o n d, t h e c h ie f e x ec u tiv e’s r o le a s a n a g en da s e tte r h as g ro w n. T he c h ie f e x ec u tiv e— pre sid en t, g o vern or, m ay o r, c o u n ty e x ec u tiv e— in it ia te s m ost o f t h e p ro p osa ls t h at le g is la tu re s r e v ie w . T yp ic a lly t h e e x ec u tiv e s h ap es t h is p ro gra m t h ro u gh c o n su lt a tio n w it h th e a g en cy -b ase d e x p erts o f t h e e x ec u tiv e b ra n ch . A lt h ou gh t h ey a re n ot t h e o n ly s o u rc es o f th e e x ec u tiv e’s i d ea s, a g en cy e x p erts a re s tr a te g ic a lly s it u ate d t o i n it ia te a n d c o u n se l o n poli c y p ro p osa ls i n t h e s e a rc h f o r t h e e x ec u tiv e’s s u pport. A nd t o c o m ple te t h e c ir c le , t h e ex ec u tiv e’s n eed f o r e x p ert h elp h as g ro w n a s p u bli c p oli c y p ro b le m s h av e b ec o m e 149 in cre a sin gly t e c h n ic a l. The s e c o n d s ta g e o f t h e p oli c y f o rm atio n p ro cess o ccu rs a ft e r t h e la w s a re o n t h e b ooks. I n most c a se s, t h e s ta tu te s a re n ot c le a r e n ou gh s o t h at w hat h ap pen s a ft e rw ard c a n b e re g ard ed a s e x ec u tio n i n t h e n arro w s e n se . L eg is la tiv e b eh av io r s o m etim es p ro d u ces h ig h ly deta ile d s ta tu te s a n d o th er t im es r e su lt s i n o n ly a f u zzy i d en tif ic a tio n o f a p ro b le m t h at ad m in is tr a to rs m ust w re stle w it h . I n e ffe c t, a d m in is tr a to rs m ak e p oli c y b y t r y in g t o d ec id e what t h e le g is la to rs m ea n t a n d a ctin g o n i t . There a re s e v era l r e a so n s f o r d ele g atin g s u ch e x te n siv e p oli c y m ak in g p ow er. I n a n ew p oli c y fie ld i n w hic h t h ere i s li t tle e x p erie n ce t o b u ild o n , t h e le g is la tu re m ay o n ly w av e v ag u ely i n th e d ir e c tio n t h at a ctio n s h ou ld t a k e. I n a f ie ld i n w hic h t e c h n olo gy o r o th er f e a tu re s ch an ge r a p id ly , t h e s ta tu te m ust p erm it f le x ib le a ctio n b y t h e a g en cy , r a th er t h an r e q u ir in g fr e q u en t r e tu rn s t o t h e le g is la tu re f o r e n actm en t o f n ew la n gu ag e. C on gre ss, f o r e x am ple , co u ld n ev er p ossib ly a n tic ip ate a ll t h e s te p s o f p u ttin g s a te lli t e s i n to s p ace. ( T here w as a tim e w hen t h e c o m pu te r c o d e f o r a r o ck et la u n ch w as t h e m ost c o m pli c a te d o n E arth . T he sm artp h on e i n y o u r p ock et i s m ore p ow erfu l t h an t h e c o m pu te r t h at p u t a m an o n t h e moon .) S om e s u bje c ts , s u ch a s li c en sin g li q u or s to re s a n d o p era tin g t a x is , s im ply d o n ot le n d t h em se lv es t o t h e s p ec if ic a tio n o f c rit e ria t h at w ou ld c o n fin e a d m in is tr a tiv e d is c re tio n . Sta tu te s o ft e n d o s p ec if y s o m e c o n dit io n s ( fo r e x am ple , r e q u ir e m en ts t h at li q u or s to re ow ners m ust n ot h av e c rim in al r e c o rd s a n d t h at li q u or s to re s n ot b e lo ca te d n ea r s c h ools ), bu t t h ey o ffe r f e w g u id eli n es a b ou t h ow t o c h oose a m on g t h e n um ero u s a p pli c a n ts w ho meet t h ese s im ple c rit e ria . I n a d dit io n , i n gen io u s e n tr e p re n eu rs c a n o ft e n g en era te c le v er way s o f e v ad in g a n y h ig h ly s p ec if ic p ro h ib it io n s i n a s ta tu te . C on gre ss b ro ad ly f o rb id s “u n fa ir m eth od s o f c o m petit io n . . . a n d u n fa ir o r d ec ep tiv e a cts i n c o m merc e,” le a v in g t h e ad m in is tr a tiv e a g en cy a n d t h e c o u rts t o r e fin e t h ose v ag u e t e rm s “ u n fa ir ” a n d “ d ec ep tiv e.” At t im es, t h e le g is la tiv e p ro cess i s s o s to rm y a n d f u ll o f c ro ssc u rre n ts t h at t h e r e su lt in g sta tu te s i n co rp ora te c o n tr a d ic to ry p oli c y g u id eli n es, le a v in g a g en cy m an ag ers t o u se t h eir ow n j u dgm en t i n r e c o n cili n g t h e c o n tr a d ic tio n s. S om etim es, t o o, a c o m pro m is e le a d s t o le g is la tiv e la n gu ag e t h at p ap ers o ver d is a g re em en t, b u t t h at g iv es a d m in is tr a to rs a w id e ra n ge f o r i n te rp re ta tio n . M ost a g en cie s, f u rth erm ore , a d m in is te r m an y s ta tu te s p asse d a t dif fe re n t t im es a n d m ir ro rin g d if fe re n t le g is la tiv e p re fe re n ces, le a v in g a d m in is tr a to rs t o re c o n cile t h e a ccu m ula te d i n str u ctio n s. F in ally , t h e le g is la tu re m ay n ot a p pro p ria te su ffic ie n t f u n ds t o e n ab le a n a g en cy t o c a rry o u t a p ro gra m a s e n acte d . U nle ss t h e le g is la tu re i t s e lf g iv es s p ec if ic d ir e c tio n , t h e a g en cy m ust t h en d ec id e w heth er t o s p re a d t h e mon ey t h in ly o r c h oose w hic h o f i t s o b je c tiv es i t w ill p u rsu e w it h v ig o r a n d w hic h i t w ill sli g h t. Rip ped f r o m t h e H ea d li n es: T he P ris o n B ec o m es a M ariju an a F arm Them e: A cco u n ta b ili t y 150 The c it y c o u n cil o f C oali n ga t o ok a p air o f v o te s i n J u ly 2 016 t h at p ro m is e d b ig c h an ges f o r t h e c it y — an d big c h alle n ges f o r lo ca l p u bli c a d m in is tr a to rs. T he t o w n o f 1 6,0 00 i n C ali f o rn ia ’s S an J o aq u in V alle y v o te d to a llo w t h e c o m merc ia l c u lt iv atio n o f m ariju an a w it h in t h e c it y li m it s — an d t o s e ll a c lo se d p ris o n t o a priv ate c o m pan y, O cea n G ro w n E xtr a cts , t o c re a te a “ m ed ic a l c a n nab is o il e x tr a ctio n p la n t.” T he $ 4.1 milli o n s a le i m med ia te ly h elp ed t h e t o w n b ala n ce i t s b u dget. The t o w n’s m ay o r p ro t e m , P atr ic k K eo u gh , e x p la in ed , “ It’s li k e t h e G ra te fu l D ea d s a id : ‘W hat a lo n g, str a n ge t r ip i t ’s b een .’” I t w as d em ocra cy i n a ctio n , h e c o n te n ded . “ W e li s te n ed t o t h e c it iz e n s a n d c re a te d a pack ag e t h at w as r e fle c tiv e o f o u r p op u la tio n .” C it y o ffic ia ls a ls o b eli e v ed t h at t h e v o te w ou ld h elp p re v en t Coali n ga f r o m la g gin g b eh in d o th er t o w ns t r y in g t o g et i n to t h e c a n nab is c u lt iv atio n b u sin ess. But t h e v o te d id n ’t c o m e w it h ou t s tr in gs, a n d t h e r e q u ir e m en ts p ro m is e d t o k eep lo ca l p oli c e a n d p u bli c ad m in is tr a to rs b u sy . T he o w ner w ou ld b e r e sp on sib le f o r a n y li a b ili t y i s su es, w hic h c o u ld p ro ve a n i s su e a s lo n g a s f e d era l la w p ro h ib it s t h e u se o f m ariju an a. A ll e m plo yees w ou ld b e s u bje c t t o a b ack gro u n d c h ec k an d r e c eiv e a lo ca l g o vern m en t p erm it t o w ork o n t h e s it e , w hic h t h e C oali n ga P oli c e D ep artm en t w ou ld keep o n f ile . The f a cili t y w ou ld b e r e q u ir e d t o h av e lo ck ed g ate s a n d w ou ld n ot b e o p en t o t h e p u bli c . T he o p era to rs wou ld n eed t o h av e v id eo s u rv eilla n ce t w en ty -fo u r h ou rs p er d ay , w it h t h e f e ed p ro vid ed t o t h e p oli c e dep artm en t. I t c o u ld n ot h av e a n y s ig n s a n d t h e f a cili t y ’s o p era to rs w ou ld n eed t o h av e o d or c o n tr o l, s o passe rsb y c o u ld n ’t s m ell c a n nab is . A nd e a ch o f t h e p la n ts w ou ld b e r e q u ir e d t o h av e a n e le c tr o n ic t r a ck in g dev ic e. T he p oli c e c h ie f, f ir e c h ie f, a n d c it y p la n ner w ou ld b e r e q u ir e d , s ix ty d ay s i n a d van ce, t o c ertif y t h at th e f a cili t y m et a ll f ir e s a fe ty a n d b u ild in g c o d es. T he p oli c y c h an ge r e q u ir e d e v en b ig ger c h an ges f o r t h e lo ca l p u bli c a d m in is tr a to rs. Sou rce : R ory A pple to n , “ C oali n ga L eg ali z e s M ed ic a l M ariju an a O pera tio n ,” Fre sn o B ee ( J u ly 7 , 2 016), http :/ /w ww.f r e sn ob ee.c o m /n ew s/ lo ca l/ a rtic le 8 8377122.h tm l . In s h ort, p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n s h ap es p oli c y o n t h e w ay u p, e x ec u te s p oli c y a ft e r i t h as been m ad e, a n d e x erc is e s d is c re tio n a b ou t p oli c y q u estio n s o n t h e w ay d ow n. The P oli t ic s-A dm in is tr a tio n D ic h oto m y. As s c h ola rs s tu die d p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n e a rly i n t h e t w en tie th c en tu ry , t h ey s e p ara te d poli c y — th e p oli t ic a l w ork o f s h ap in g p u bli c d ec is io n s— fr o m a d m in is tr a tio n — th e d eta ile d work o f c a rry in g t h em o u t. A s w e s a w i n Chap te r 1 , t h is d ic h oto m y c a m e f r o m t h e g o al o f defin in g a d is tin ctiv e f ie ld o f s tu dy a n d, e v en m ore s o , f r o m t h e e ffo rts t o r e fo rm c it y , s ta te , an d n atio n al g o vern m en ts i n t h e la te n in ete en th a n d e a rly t w en tie th c en tu rie s b y r o otin g ou t p ern ic io u s p oli t ic a l c o rru ptio n . E sta b li s h in g a n eu tr a l r e a lm f o r a d m in is tr a tio n , pro te c te d b y c iv il s e rv ic e la w s a n d g o vern ed b y a d riv e f o r e ffic ie n cy , w ou ld d ry u p t h e patr o n ag e r e so u rc es o f p oli t ic a l m ach in es a n d le a v e p oli c y m ak in g o rg an s o f g o vern m en t more d ir e c tly a cco u n ta b le t o t h e p eo p le . Tod ay , t h e d u al g o als o f a ssu rin g a n on partis a n b od y o f c iv il s e rv an ts r e m ain u n ch an ged : lo yal s e rv ic e t o o ffic ia ls f r o m d if fe re n t p oli t ic a l p artie s a n d t h e a ch ie v em en t o f e ffic ie n t ad m in is tr a tio n . T he o b vio u s f a ct t h at a d m in is tr a tiv e s ta ffs s h are i n p oli c y f o rm atio n — as well a s t h e f u zzy li n e b etw een p oli c y a n d a d m in is tr a tio n — has le d m an y s tu den ts t o r e je c t th e poli c y -a d m in is tr a tio n d ic h oto m y. A naly sts h av e t r ie d t o r e esta b li s h t h e d is tin ctio n b y fo rb id din g a d m in is tr a to rs f r o m p artic ip atin g i n p oli t ic a l a ctiv it ie s, b u t t h at li n e m ay w av er. 151 Civ il s e rv an ts n eed t o b e r e sp ec tfu l o f t h e p oli c y g o als o f e le c te d o ffic ia ls a n d s e n sit iv e t o t h e poli t ic a l i m pli c a tio n s o f t h eir p oli c y s u ggestio n s. B ut c iv il s e rv an ts h av e o th er o b li g atio n s a s well— to lo n g-r a n ge p oli c y g o als , c o n tin uit y a n d c o n sis te n cy , e ffe c tiv e a d m in is tr a tio n , a n d re sis ta n ce t o c o rru ptio n . F urth erm ore , t h ey m ust b ala n ce a n a d m in is tr a tio n ’s p re fe re n ces ag ain st le g is la tiv e a n d j u dic ia l m an date s. Civ il s e rv an ts h av e r e sp on sib ili t ie s d if fe re n t f r o m t h ose o f p oli t ic a lly e le c te d o ffic ia ls . P oli c y an d a d m in is tr a tio n a re c erta in ly i n te rtw in ed , b u t t h e m otiv atio n s a n d b eh av io rs o f poli c y m ak ers a n d p u bli c a d m in is tr a to rs a re v ery d if fe re n t. S ep ara tin g t h em i s a c o re i s su e o f pu bli c a d m in is tr a tio n . 152 A dm in is tr a tiv e R esp on sib ili t y E very w ell- d ev elo p ed o rg an iz a tio n h as s o m e s y ste m f o r h old in g s u bord in ate s a cco u n ta b le t o t h eir s u perio rs. N ow here i s t h e s y ste m s o c o m ple x a n d c o n fin in g a s i n g o vern m en t. 24 S ta tu te s a n d r e g u la tio n s s p ec if y e la b ora te p ro ced u re s t h at s e rio u sly li m it a d m in is tr a to rs’ d is c re tio n ary a u th orit y . L eg is la tiv e c o m mit te es c a ll a d m in is tr a to rs t o t e stif y a b ou t c o m pla in ts t h at h av e a ris e n o n t h e p ro gra m s t h ey m an ag e. M em bers o f le g is la tiv e s ta ffs c lo se ly m on it o r a d m in is tr a tiv e a ctio n s i n a g en cie s o f i n te re st t o t h eir s u perio rs. B udget o ffic es t y p ic a lly r e v ie w p ro p ose d r e g u la tio n s a n d i n fo rm atio n -g ath erin g p ro p osa ls i n a d dit io n t o r e v ie w in g f in an cia l r e q u ests a n d s e ttin g p erso n nel c eili n gs. F ro m t h e c a re er a d m in is tr a to rs’ p ersp ec tiv e, t h is i s a f o rm id ab le c o n tr o l s y ste m . Y et a s w e s u ggeste d e a rli e r, a d m in is tr a tiv e r e sp on sib ili t y g o es b ey o n d t h ese e x te rn al c o n tr o ls o n b eh av io r. T here a re a ls o n orm s f o r b eh av io r t h at a re i n te rn ali z e d b y a d m in is tr a to rs t h em se lv es. F ir st, k n ow in g t h at t h ey s e rv e i n g o vern m en t, t h ey m ust b e s e n sit iv e t o t h e l e g it im ate r o le s o f o th er p arts o f t h e g o vern m en t, i n clu din g i n stit u tio n s c h arg ed w it h le g al c o n tr o l o f t h eir b eh av io r. S ec o n d, t h ey h av e a lo yalt y t o t h eir a g en cie s a n d t h e p ro gra m s e n tr u ste d t o t h em . T hir d , i n a c iv il s e rv ic e n ow p op u la te d b y p ro fe ssio n al e x p erts , t h ey h av e a b so rb ed t h eir p ro fe ssio n al s ta n dard s a n d a re m otiv ate d t o b e r e c o gn iz e d b y t h eir f e llo w p ro fe ssio n als o u ts id e t h e g o vern m en t. A ll t h ese c o m mit m en ts s h ap e a d m in is tr a tiv e r e sp on sib ili t y , e v en t h ou gh a t t im es t h ey m ay n ot a ll p oin t i n t h e s a m e d ir e c tio n . 25 T hat le a d s t o a f u n dam en ta l p ro b le m o f a cco u n ta b ili t y . E xte rn al c o n tr o ls o n b u re a u cra cy o ft e n le a d t o r e d t a p e. E xte rn al c o n tr o ls c a n r e p la ce e x te rn al o versig h t, b u t t h at r e q u ir e s e n han ced t r u st b etw een t h e p oli t ic a l a n d t h e c iv il s e rv ic e s tr a ta o f g o vern m en t. A nd t h at, i n t u rn , s e ts u p s o m e o f t h e m ost f u n dam en ta l d eb ate s a b ou t t h e s tu dy o f p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n . N ow , t o b e s u re , t h e d eb ate a b ou t t h e d if fe re n ces b etw een p u bli c a n d p riv ate a d m in is tr a tio n s o m etim es g et o verb lo w n. A s w e s h all s e e i n t h is b ook, p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n i s r e ly in g f a r m ore o n p riv ate p artn ers f o r t h e a d m in is tr a tio n o f g o vern m en ta l p ro gra m s. I n t h e p riv ate s e c to r, p u bli c p oli c ie s c re a te li m it s o n h ir in g a n d f ir in g, a n d c o m pan ie s s o m etim es p u sh s h ort- te rm p ro fit s t o t h e s id e i n p u rsu it o f lo n ger- t e rm r e la tio n sh ip s w it h s u ppli e rs a n d c u sto m ers. M ore o ver, t h e d eb ate s o m etim es g ets c a u gh t i n f ie rc e i d eo lo gic a l b attle s t h at h av e m ore t o d o w it h t r u st i n g o vern m en t t h an f u n dam en ta l a n aly tic a l d if fe re n ces. T here i s o ft e n m ore h ea t t h an li g h t i n t h ese d eb ate s. B ut a t t h e c o re , t h e li g h t i s u se fu l: i t h elp s i llu m in ate t h ose f e a tu re s t h at li e a t t h e c o re o f p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n — an d o f t h e i m porta n t i s su es w e e x am in e i n t h is b ook. 153 A c o n gre ssio n al i n vestig atio n i n to a c o n fe re n ce s p on so re d b y t h e f e d era l G en era l S erv ic es Adm in is tr a tio n b ro u gh t t o u gh c o n gre ssio n al q u estio n s a b ou t e v en ts f e a tu rin g a p ro fe ssio n al min d r e a d er, a c lo w n, a n d a t e a m -b u ild in g e x erc is e f o r b u ild in g b ic y cle s. I n sp ec to r G en era l Bria n M ille r ( le ft ) p ro d u ced a r e p ort o n t h e c o n fe re n ce, w hic h le d a g en cy a d m in is tr a to r Marth a J o h n so n ( c en te r) t o r e sig n . J e ff N eely , r e g io n al c o m mis sio n er ( r ig h t) , o rg an iz e d t h e co n fe re n ce. Andre w H arre r/B lo om berg v ia G etty I m ag es 154 T he S tu dy o f P ubli c A dm in is tr a tio n H ow , t h en , s h ou ld w e t h in k a b ou t “ p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n ”? 26 D wig h t W ald o s u ggests t h at w e f a ce a d if fic u lt t a sk . H e p oin ts o u t t h at p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n h as r o ots d eep i n h is to ric c ro ssc u rre n ts , i n clu din g t h e p oli t ic a l i d ea s o f t h e s m all G re ek c it y -s ta te ( th e poli s ) a n d t h e l a rg e-s c a le a d m in is tr a tio n o f t h e R om an E m pir e , b oth o f w hic h h elp ed s h ap e t h e A m eric a n s y ste m . 27 O ne w ay o f a d dre ssin g t h is t a sk i s c la im in g t h at a d m in is tr a tio n a n d p oli c y ( o r p oli t ic s) a re s e p ara te s p h ere s. W ood ro w W ils o n a n d F ra n k J . G ood n ow , w rit in g i n t h e la te n in ete en th a n d e a rly t w en tie th c en tu rie s, t o ok t h is v ie w . 28 N ic h ola s H en ry i d en tif ie s 1 900– 1 926 a s t h e p erio d w hen t h e p oli t ic s-a d m in is tr a tio n d ic h oto m y r e ig n ed . H e t h en t r a ces l a te r p erio d s: 1 927–1937, w hen s tu den ts a ffir m ed t h e e x is te n ce o f c le a r p rin cip le s o f p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n ; 1 938–1950, m ark ed b y r e je c tio n o f t h e p oli t ic s-a d m in is tr a tio n d ic h oto m y a n d lo ss o f c o n fid en ce i n p rin cip le s; t h e r e a ctio n o f 1 950–1970, y ea rs o f r e o rie n ta tio n t o p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n a s p oli t ic a l s c ie n ce; o verla p pin g a n d c o n tr a d ic tin g t h at r e o rie n ta tio n , a 1 956–1970 e m ph asis o n m an ag em en t, o ft e n b orro w in g f r o m b u sin ess m an ag em en t, t o geth er w it h t h e r is e o f p u bli c p oli c y s tu die s ( fo cu se d o n e ffe c tiv e a ch ie v em en t o f p oli c y o b je c tiv es); a n d, f in ally , t h e p ost- 1 970 r e v ersio n t o a s p ec if ic f o cu s o n p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n . T hat w ork i s o ft e n lo d ged i n d is tin ct s c h ools o f p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n t h at a re h osp it a b le t o m an ag em en t m eth od s b u t a re s e n sit iv e t o t h e p u bli c -in te re st c o m mit m en t o f a d m in is tr a to rs o f g o vern m en ta l a ffa ir s. 29 I n o u r s tu dy, w e n eed t o c o n fr o n t t h re e q u estio n s i n t r y in g t o f r a m e a g en era l a p pro ach t o t h e f ie ld . F ir st, d oes p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n h av e m ea n in g a p art f r o m i t s h is to ric a l c o n te x t? S ec o n d, d oes i t h av e m ea n in g r e g ard le ss o f p la ce, c ir c u m sta n ce, a n d le v el o f g o vern m en t? T hir d , i f w e m ak e e v en li m it e d g en era li z a tio n s, h ow s h all w e p ro ceed ? T o s u ch f u n dam en ta l q u estio n s, w e m ust o ffe r p erp le x in g a n sw ers: 1 . Publi c a d m in is tr a tio n i s t im ele ss b u t i s t im e-b ou n d. 30 2 . Publi c a d m in is tr a tio n i s u n iv ersa l b u t i s a ls o c u lt u re -b ou n d a n d v arie s w it h sit u atio n s. 3 . Publi c a d m in is tr a tio n i s c o m ple x b u t i s i n te lli g ib le o n ly b y a s im pli f ie d m od el o r a ste p -b y-s te p c o m bin atio n o f s u ch m od els . W e c o n sid er t h e f ir st t w o p u zzle s t o geth er, b ec a u se t im e a n d s p ace a re r e la te d v aria b le s. 155 P ubli c A dm in is tr a tio n i n T im e P ubli c a d m in is tr a tio n h as a lo n ger h is to ry a n d a w id er g eo gra p h ic r a n ge t h an a lm ost a n y o th er a sp ec t o f g o vern m en t. I t i s f a r o ld er t h an A m eric a n g o vern m en t— it h as b een t h e i n str u m en t o f a n cie n t e m pir e s, m on arc h ie s, d em ocra cie s, a n d d ic ta to rsh ip s, i n b oth d ev elo p ed a n d d ev elo p in g c o u n tr ie s. C arl J . F rie d ric h h as c o gen tly a rg u ed t h at t h e a ch ie v em en t o f r e p re se n ta tiv e g o vern m en t i n W este rn E uro p e d ep en ded o n t h e p rio r d ev elo p m en t o f e ffe c tiv e b u re a u cra cie s b y u n dem ocra tic r e g im es. 31 I n deed , r e v o lu tio n s t h at s e ek t o t r a n sfo rm t h e s tr u ctu re o f p oli t ic a l a u th orit y a ls o s tr u ggle t o c o n tr o l t h e b u re a u cra cy . I n t h e U nit e d S ta te s, p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n r e c eiv ed s c a n t d is c u ssio n f r o m t h e n atio n ’s f o u n ders f o r d ec a d es a ft e r t h e w rit in g o f t h e C on stit u tio n . A s h e t r a v ele d t h e U nit e d S ta te s i n 1 835, A le x is d e T ocq u ev ille w as a m aze d a t t h e n eg le c t o f t h e s u bje c t i n t h e y o u n g n atio n , c o m pare d w it h e x p erie n ce i n h is n ativ e F ra n ce: The p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n i s , s o t o s p ea k , o ra l a n d t r a d it io n al. B ut li t tle i s co m mit te d t o w rit in g a n d t h at li t tle i s s o on w aft e d a w ay f o re v er, li k e t h e le a v es o f th e S ib yl, b y t h e s m alle st b re eze . . . . T he i n sta b ili t y o f a d m in is tr a tio n h as pen etr a te d i n to t h e h ab it s o f t h e p eo p le . . . a n d n o o n e c a re s f o r w hat o ccu rre d befo re h is t im e: n o m eth od ic a l s y ste m i s p u rsu ed , n o a rc h iv es a re f o rm ed , a n d n o docu m en ts a re b ro u gh t t o geth er w hen i t w ou ld b e v ery e a sy t o d o s o . . . . Nev erth ele ss, t h e a rt o f a d m in is tr a tio n i s u n dou bte d ly a s c ie n ce, a n d n o s c ie n ce ca n b e i m pro ved i f t h e d is c o verie s a n d o b se rv atio n s o f s u ccessiv e g en era tio n s a re not c o n nec te d t o geth er i n t h e o rd er i n w hic h t h ey o ccu r. . . . B ut t h e p erso n s who c o n du ct t h e a d m in is tr a tio n i n A m eric a c a n s e ld om a ffo rd a n y i n str u ctio n t o on e a n oth er. . . . D em ocra cy , p u sh ed t o i t s f u rth est li m it s , i s t h ere fo re p re ju dic ia l to t h e a rt o f g o vern m en t; a n d f o r t h is r e a so n i t i s b ette r a d ap te d t o a p eo p le alr e a d y v erse d i n t h e c o n du ct o f a d m in is tr a tio n t h an t o a n atio n t h at i s un in it ia te d i n p u bli c a ffa ir s. 32 T o d ea l w it h t h ese i s su es, W ood ro w W ils o n w ro te t h at “ th e p ois o n ou s a tm osp h ere o f c it y g o vern m en t, t h e c ro oked s e c re ts o f s ta te a d m in is tr a tio n , t h e c o n fu sio n , s in ec u ris m , a n d c o rru ptio n e v er a n d a g ain d is c o vere d i n t h e b u re a u a t W ash in gto n f o rb id u s t o b eli e v e t h at a n y c le a r c o n cep tio n s o f w hat c o n stit u te s g o od a d m in is tr a tio n a re a s y et v ery w id ely c u rre n t i n t h e U nit e d S ta te s.” 33 N otin g t h at “ th e f u n ctio n s o f g o vern m en t a re e v ery d ay b ec o m in g m ore c o m ple x a n d d if fic u lt ” a n d “ are a ls o v astly m ult ip ly in g i n n um ber,” W ils o n p le a d ed i n h is 1 887 e ssa y f o r “ a s c ie n ce o f a d m in is tr a tio n w hic h s h all s e ek t o s tr a ig h te n t h e p ath s o f g o vern m en t, to m ak e i t s b u sin ess le ss u n bu sin essli k e, t o s tr e n gth en a n d p u rif y i t s o rg an iz a tio n , a n d t o c ro w n i t s d u tie s w it h d u tif u ln ess.” S u ch a s c ie n ce, h e n ote d , e x is te d o n 156 th e E uro p ea n c o n tin en t, e sp ec ia lly i n P ru ssia n a n d F re n ch p ra ctic e. H e a n tic ip ate d t h at co m para tiv e s tu dy w ou ld y ie ld “ o n e r u le o f g o od a d m in is tr a tio n f o r a ll g o vern m en ts a li k e. So f a r a s a d m in is tr a tiv e f u n ctio n s a re c o n cern ed , a ll g o vern m en ts h av e a s tr o n g s tr u ctu ra l li k en ess; m ore t h an t h at, i f t h ey a re t o b e u n if o rm ly u se fu l a n d e ffic ie n t, t h ey m ust h av e a str o n g s tr u ctu ra l li k en ess.” Fro m o n e p oin t o f v ie w , t h en , p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n h as u n iv ersa l e le m en ts , i n dep en den t o f tim e, p la ce, a n d p oli t ic a l s y ste m . T hose w ho s e rv e i n a n y p u bli c b u re a u cra cy m ust b e se le c te d , p aid , g iv en s p ec if ic a ssig n m en ts , c o n tr o lle d , d is c ip li n ed w hen n ec essa ry , a n d s o o n . To p ay t h em a n d t o s u pport o th er g o vern m en ta l a ctiv it ie s ( m in im ally , p ro vis io n f o r mili t a ry f o rc es a n d c o n str u ctio n o f r o ad s), a r e v en ue s y ste m m ust b e d ev is e d , t h e r e c eip ts allo ca te d b y s o m e k in d o f b u dgeta ry s y ste m , a n d a cco u n tin g a n d o th er r e c o rd keep in g meth od s w ork ed o u t. To s a y t h at t h ere a re s u ch u n iv ersa l e le m en ts i m pli e s t h at g o vern m en ts e v ery w here c a n accu m ula te e x p erie n ce, a n d t h at t h is c o n stit u te s a r e se rv o ir o n w hic h g o vern m en ts c a n d ra w to a v o id r e p ea tin g m is ta k es. A s W ils o n s ta te d , “ th e o b je c t o f a d m in is tr a tiv e s tu dy i s t o re sc u e e x ec u tiv e m eth od s f r o m t h e c o n fu sio n a n d c o stli n ess o f e m pir ic a l e x p erim en t a n d s e t th em u pon f o u n datio n s la id d eep i n s ta b le p rin cip le .” H ow ev er, d esp it e e x p ec ta tio n s t h at more t h an 1 00 y ea rs o f p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n s tu dy s h ou ld b y n ow h av e y ie ld ed s ta b le prin cip le s, t h at h as n ot y et h ap pen ed . W ils o n b ase d h is a n aly sis o n a p erc ep tio n o f ad m in is tr a tio n a s a n eu tr a l i n str u m en t, d is tin ct f r o m p oli c y , p oli t ic s, a n d p artic u la r re g im es. S u ch a p erc ep tio n s e em ed e sse n tia l t o d efin e a d is tin ct f ie ld o f s tu dy, s e p ara te f r o m th e s tu dy o f p oli c y a n d p oli t ic s. I t m ay a ls o h av e s p ru n g f r o m t h e neu tr a li t y d octr in e o f civ il s e rv ic e r e fo rm ers, w ho h ad s u cceed ed i n g ettin g t h e P en dle to n C iv il S erv ic e A ct p asse d ju st f o u r y ea rs b efo re W ils o n ’s e ssa y a p pea re d i n t h e 1 887 v o lu m e o f Poli t ic a l S cie n ce Quarte rly . B ut i t w as a n e sp ec ia lly c rit ic a l a ssu m ptio n f o r W ils o n ’s t h esis t h at “ n ow here e ls e in t h e w hole f ie ld o f p oli t ic s, i t w ou ld s e em , c a n w e m ak e u se o f t h e h is to ric a l, c o m para tiv e meth od m ore s a fe ly t h an i n t h is p ro vin ce o f a d m in is tr a tio n .” T hat i s , w e c a n le a rn ad m in is tr a tio n f r o m t h e P ru ssia n a n d F re n ch ( N ap ole o n ic ) a u to cra cie s w it h ou t b ein g in fe c te d b y t h eir a n tid em ocra tic p oli t ic a l p rin cip le s. Wils o n ’s li n e o f a rg u m en t f r a m ed t w o c o n tr a d ic to ry t h em es. O ne w as t h at a d m in is tr a tio n must b e f it te d t o t h e p artic u la r n atio n ’s p oli t ic a l i d ea s a n d c o n stit u tio n al s y ste m . T he sc ie n ce o f a d m in is tr a tio n , W ils o n w ro te , is n ot o f o u r m ak in g; i t i s a f o re ig n s c ie n ce, s p ea k in g v ery li t tle o f t h e la n gu ag e o f Engli s h o r A m eric a n p rin cip le s. . . . I t h as b een d ev elo p ed b y F re n ch a n d Germ an p ro fe sso rs, a n d i s c o n se q u en tly i n a ll p arts a d ap te d t o t h e n eed s o f a co m pact s ta te , a n d m ad e t o f it h ig h ly c en tr a li z e d f o rm s o f g o vern m en t. . . . I f w e wou ld e m plo y i t , w e m ust A m eric a n iz e i t , a n d t h at n ot f o rm ally , i n la n gu ag e mere ly , b u t r a d ic a lly , i n t h ou gh t, p rin cip le , a n d a im a s w ell. I t m ust le a rn o u r 157 co n stit u tio n s b y h ea rt; m ust g et t h e b u re a u cra tic f e v er o u t o f i t s v ein s; m ust in hale m uch f r e e A m eric a n a ir . Wils o n a d van ced a s e c o n d t h em e t h at b lu rs t h e d is tin ctio n h e m ad e e ls e w here b etw een poli c y a n d a d m in is tr a tio n . H e c o n te n ded t h at t h e li n es o f d em arc a tio n , s e ttin g a p art a d m in is tr a tiv e f r o m n on ad m in is tr a tiv e fu n ctio n s . . . r u n u p h ill a n d d ow n d ale , o ver d iz zy h eig h ts o f d is tin ctio n a n d th ro u gh d en se j u n gle s o f s ta tu to ry e n actm en t, h it h er a n d t h it h er a ro u n d “ if s ” an d “ b u ts ,” “ w hen s,” a n d “ h ow ev er,” u n til t h ey b ec o m e a lt o geth er lo st t o t h e co m mon e y e. Wils o n s u ggeste d “ so m e r o u gh ly d efin it e c rit e ria ”: “ p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n i s d eta ile d a n d sy ste m atic e x ec u tio n o f p u bli c la w ,” “ ev ery p artic u la r a p pli c a tio n o f g en era l la w ,” “ th e deta ile d e x ec u tio n ” o f “ th e b ro ad p la n s o f g o vern m en ta l a ctio n ,” t h e “ sp ec ia l m ea n s” a s dis tin gu is h ed f r o m t h e “ g en era l p la n s.” Y et h e w en t o n t o p le a d f o r t h e v estin g o f “ la rg e pow ers a n d u n ham pere d d is c re tio n ” a s t h e i n dis p en sa b le c o n dit io n s o f a d m in is tr a tiv e re sp on sib ili t y . Here , t h en , a re W ils o n ’s b asic c o n tr a d ic tio n s: h e c o n te n ds t h at p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n n eed s to b e i n te rp re te d i n t h e li g h t o f a p artic u la r c o u n tr y ’s p oli t ic a l i d ea s a n d f o rm o f go vern m en t, b u t a t t h e s a m e t im e h e s e es i t a s a n eu tr a l i n str u m en t. H e s e ek s a g o al o f “ o n e ru le o f g o od a d m in is tr a tio n f o r a ll g o vern m en ts a li k e,” b u t h e n ote s t h at d if fe re n t s e ttin gs ca n p ro d u ce d if fe re n t p ro b le m s. H e e x p la in s t h at a d m in is tr a to rs h av e la rg e p ow ers a n d gre a t d is c re tio n , b u t h e s a y s t h at t h e a d m in is tr a tiv e c a n not r e a d ily b e d is tin gu is h ed f r o m th e n on ad m in is tr a tiv e a sp ec ts o f g o vern m en t. Much o f t h e li t e ra tu re o n a d m in is tr a tio n s in ce W ils o n ’s t im e h as s tr u ggle d w it h t h e s a m e co n tr a d ic tio n s w it h w hic h h e s tr u ggle d . E ach o f t h e p osit io n s h e e m bra ced h as j u st a p ie c e of t h e w hole t r u th . A n um ber o f p ro b le m s a re c o m mon t o a ll o r m ost p u bli c b u re a u cra cie s. Most o f t h ese i s su es f lo w f r o m a s im ple q u estio n , w hic h W ils o n la id o u t: H ow c a n go vern m en t d o t h in gs “ w it h t h e u tm ost p ossib le e ffic ie n cy a n d a t t h e le a st p ossib le c o st eit h er o f m on ey o r o f e n erg y”? Y et t h ere a re a ls o p ro b le m s, s o m e o f t h em a m on g t h e m ost crit ic a l f o r a d m in is tr a tio n , t h at r e q u ir e d if fe re n t c rit e ria a n d d if fe re n t a n sw ers i n d is sim ila r so cia l a n d p oli t ic a l s y ste m s, a t t h e s e v era l s ta g es o f n atio n al d ev elo p m en t, a n d e v en i n t h e in div id u al a g en cie s o f a s in gle g o vern m en t. Weste rn m od els h av e n ot p ro ved g o od m atc h es f o r u n dersta n din g b u re a u cra cy i n n on – Weste rn p oli t ic a l s y ste m s. A nd w hen d ev elo p in g c o u n tr ie s h av e lo oked t o t h e W est f o r mod els , t h ey h av e s tr u ggle d t o c h oose w hic h o n es t o f o llo w . A s u bsta n tia l c o m para tiv e ad m in is tr a tio n m ovem en t a p pea re d i n t h e 1 960s, b u t t h e m ovem en t v ir tu ally e v ap ora te d 158 un til t h e g lo b al p u bli c m an ag em en t r e v o lu tio n t h at b eg an i n t h e la te 1 980s h elp ed t o re ju ven ate i t . T im e a n d s p ace a re i n te rli n ked i n t h e r e c en t a n d g ro w in g li t e ra tu re o n t h e his to ry o f g o vern m en ta l a d m in is tr a tio n . 34 M ore o ver, a s C hris to p h er P olli t t a rg u es, t h e d eep tr a d it io n s o f b eh av io r a n d c u lt u re h av e a p ow erfu l i n flu en ce o ver a d m in is tr a tiv e a ctio n . T he pace o f s o cia l c h an ge h as a ccele ra te d a ro u n d t h e w orld , a n d “ th is m ak es c o n sid era tio n s o f tim e a n d o f t h e p ast e v en more i m porta n t, n ot le ss s o .” 35 W e n eed t o u n dersta n d w here ad m in is tr a tio n c o m es f r o m t o u n dersta n d h ow t h e p ast s h ap es t h e w ay w e t h in k a b ou t t h e pre se n t a n d f u tu re . 159 C om ple x it y a n d S im pli c it y A ny r e a l o rg an iz a tio n al s y ste m i s e x tr e m ely c o m ple x , a n d i t i s t h ere fo re i m possib le t o d esc rib e a n y s u ch s y ste m f u lly . I t m ig h t a p pea r t o b e a r e a so n ab le a ssu m ptio n t h at t h e m ain f e a tu re s o f t h e s y ste m c a n b e d esc rib ed — fo r e x am ple , b y a s in gle m od el t h at s im pli f ie s to ta l r e a li t y i n o rd er t o c la rif y esse n tia l r e a li t y . E ven t h is a ssu m ptio n i s w ro n g, h ow ev er, f o r t h re e r e a so n s. F ir st, t h e c o m ple x it y o f a n y la rg e-s c a le o rg an iz a tio n i s n ot a p u zzle t h at a s in gle k ey w ill u n lo ck . I n ste a d , t h ere a re s o m an y w ay s o f lo okin g a t a n o rg an iz a tio n t h at n o s in gle m od el c a n s u ffic e a s a m od el, a s c a n b e s e en f r o m t h e f o llo w in g li s t o f c o m pli c a tin g f a cto rs 36 : In te rco n nectio n s o f p oli c y m ak in g a n d e x ecu tio n . A n o rg an iz a tio n ( a s w e h av e s e en ) b oth sh ap es p oli c y a n d e x ec u te s i t , a n d t h ey i n te rtw in e i n w ay s t h at a re s o m etim es b oth su pportiv e a n d a w kw ard . Coord in atio n . A n o rg an iz a tio n i s a w ay o f b oth d iv id in g u p a n d c o ord in atin g w ork . Rela tio n sh ip s o f p ow er . A n o rg an iz a tio n i s b oth a f o rm al, p re sc rib ed s tr u ctu re o f re la tio n sh ip s a m on g o ffic es a n d o rg an iz a tio n u n it s a n d a n a re n a i n w hic h a m bit io u s perso n s a n d u n it s w ork t o e x p an d o r a t le a st m ain ta in t h eir s ta tu s a n d p ow er. Flo a tin g i n t h e s e a s o f t im e. A n o rg an iz a tio n b oth p ersis ts o ver t im e d esp it e c h an ges i n it s p erso n nel ( c o m ple te c h an ge i n t h e c a se o f lo n g-li v ed o rg an iz a tio n s) a n d a t a n y sin gle p oin t i n t im e c o n ta in s a p artic u la r g ro u p o f i n div id u als , e a ch w it h a s p ec ia l s e t of p sy ch olo gic a l n eed s a n d f r u str a tio n s. Top -d ow n a n d b otto m -u p . A n o rg an iz a tio n i s b oth a t o p -d ow n s y ste m o f a u th orit y , co n fo rm it y , a n d c o m pli a n ce a n d a b otto m -u p s y ste m f o r t h e f lo w t o t h e t o p o f in novativ e i d ea s, p ro p ose d s o lu tio n s t o p ro b le m s, c la im s o n r e so u rc es, a n d r e p orts o f tr o u ble s ig n s i n p ro gra m e x ec u tio n a n d c o n te n t. In fo rm atio n . A n o rg an iz a tio n i s a n i n fo rm atio n g en era tio n s y ste m , a s to ra g e a n d re tr ie v al f ile , a n d a c o m mun ic a tio n n etw ork , s u bje c t t o o verlo ad s o f i n fo rm atio n , mis r e a d in g o f s ig n als , a n d s u pple m en ta tio n s a n d w ir e c ro ssin g b y i n fo rm al gra p ev in es. Hea d qu arte rs a n d f i e ld . A n o rg an iz a tio n u su ally i n clu des b oth a h ea d qu arte rs s ta ff a n d a f a r-flu n g f ie ld s e rv ic e, t h e f o rm er o rg an iz e d b y f u n ctio n s a n d t h e la tte r b y geo gra p h ic a l a re a s— a f e a tu re t h at h in ders t h eir e ffe c tiv e li n kag e. Valu es. A n o rg an iz a tio n ’s d ec is io n -m ak in g p ro cess m ust e m bra ce t h e b ro ad c h oic es i n whic h t h e p erso n al v alu e p re fe re n ces a n d e d u ca te d g u esse s o f o ffic ia ls p la y a la rg e part. I t m ust p ro vid e f o r o th er m ajo r c h oic es f o r w hic h q u an tif ie d d ata a n d o th er sc ie n tif ic e v id en ce c a n c la rif y t h e o p tio n s a n d r e d u ce t h e r o le o f m ere h un ch es, a n d i t must p ro gra m t h e n arro w c h oic es c a p ab le o f r o u tin e h an dli n g b y c le rk s a n d au to m atic d ata -p ro cessin g m ach in es. In si d e a n d o u tsi d e. A n o rg an iz a tio n lo oks b oth i n w ard a n d o u tw ard , h av in g t o 160 main ta in i n te rn al e ffe c tiv en ess a n d a d ap t t o t h e e x te rn al e n vir o n m en t i n w hic h i t en co u n te rs t h e p re ssu re s o f o th er o rg an iz a tio n s, t e m pora ry c ris e s o f t h e s o cie ty a n d th e e c o n om y, o cca sio n al w re n ch in g c h an ge, a n d t h e o ft e n p oorly a rtic u la te d n eed s o f th e c u sto m ers o f i t s s e rv ic e. Physi c a l a n d o rg a n ic m od els . A n o rg an iz a tio n i s s o m etim es c o m pare d t o a p h ysic a l sy ste m s u ch a s a m ach in e, a n d s o m etim es t o a n o rg an ic b io lo gic a l s y ste m s u ch a s t h at of a n a n im al o r a li v in g p la n t. Su cce ss. I t c a n b e j u dged s u ccessfu l i f i t s im ply s u rv iv es, o r i t c a n b e s o j u dged o n ly i f it a ch ie v es t h e p u rp ose t h at j u stif ie s i t s e x is te n ce. Sec o n d, i t i s h ard t o p ro d u ce a s in gle m od el b ec a u se m ost w rit e rs o n o rg an iz a tio n s h av e so u gh t t o d esc rib e o rg an iz a tio n i n t h e a b str a ct. R ea li t ie s a re o ft e n f a r m ore c o m ple x , a n d th eo riz in g h as o ft e n b ec o m e d is c o n nec te d f r o m c o n cre te e x p erie n ce. 37 Thir d , o rg an iz a tio n al t h eo ris ts d o n ot a g re e o n a s in gle t h eo ry o r m od el. T heo rie s a n d mod els o f o rg an iz a tio n a b ou n d. E ach o n e u su ally s e ek s t o d efin e, i n i t s o w n w ay , t h e esse n ce o f o rg an iz a tio n s b u t, i n f a ct, e a ch t h eo ry t e n ds t o f o cu s o n a li m it e d n um ber o f org an iz a tio n al c h ara cte ris tic s. T he c o m ple x it y o f a n o rg an iz a tio n c a n b e a ccu ra te ly portr a y ed o n ly b y a c o m bin atio n o f t h e p artia l t r u th s t h at m ost m od els h av e e x p re sse d . W e ca n i m ag in e e a ch m od el’s b it o f t r u th b ein g m ap ped o n a t r a n sp are n t s h eet o f p ap er; w hen on e i s p la ced o n t o p o f a n oth er, t h e s e rie s o f o verla y s c o m es c lo se r t o t h e r e a l o rg an iz a tio n th an a n y s in gle s h eet d oes. 38 In Chap te r 4 , w e m ove f r o m t h is f o u n datio n — th e n atu re o f p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n — to ex p lo re t h e b asic b u ild in g b lo ck s o f o rg an iz a tio n t h eo ry . 161 C ase 3 .1 : T he A dm in is tr a tiv e S ta te : E nfo rc em en t o f Sp eed in g L aw s a n d P oli c e D is c re tio n Atte n tio n , m oto ris ts ! D riv in g t h ro u gh t h e E ast C oast? Y ou m ig h t w an t t o c h ec k o u t a w eb sit e s p on so re d b y t h e Natio n al M oto ris ts A sso cia tio n ( N M A), c a lle d t h e N atio n al S p eed T ra p E xch an ge, a t www.s p eed tr a p .o rg . H ere ’s what i t s w rit e rs h av e t o s a y a b ou t a p artic u la rly n oto rio u s s tr e tc h o f t h e I n te rsta te 8 3 h ig h w ay n ea r Y ork , Pen nsy lv an ia : The I n te rsta te g o es f r o m 6 5 t o 5 5 m ph b u t w it h a b so lu te ly n o c h an ge i n t h e h ig h w ay c o n str u ctio n , co n dit io n , o r p op u la tio n d en sit ie s a s i t ’s o u t i n t h e c o u n tr y . I t j u st s o h ap pen s t h at j u st o ff t h e Logan ville e x it i s a s ta te p oli c e b arra ck s w hic h m ak es i t a w fu l c o n ven ie n t f o r t h em t o w ork t h is s tr e tc h of r o ad .1 A r e a d er c h im es i n w it h h er t w o c en ts b elo w t h at e n tr y : My m oth er li v es i n P A , a n d I h av e s e en t r o op ers m ea su rin g s p eed i n t h at a re a — esp ec ia lly w here t h at li t tle c u t- o u t i s o n t h e s o u th bou n d h ill o f I -8 3. T ro op ers i n P A h av e t o u se s ta tio n ary r a d ar, s o t h ey hav e le a rn ed t o b e q u it e c re a tiv e w it h t h eir h id in g p la ces. Even i f w e’d li k e t o s p are t h is p erso n a t ic k et o n h er w ay t o h er m oth er’s h ou se , d oesn ’t i t s e em a li t tle , w ell, dish on est t o s h are t h is k in d o f i n fo rm atio n ? I sn ’t t h e s p eed li m it t h e s p eed li m it — in o th er w ord s, t h e la w — aft e r all? Eth ic a lly c h alle n ged ? M ay b e. B ut, i n f a ct, t h e i d ea t h at t h e s p eed li m it i s w hate v er t h e o ffic ia lly p oste d li m it s ig n sa y s i t i s m is se s t h e p oin t. T he p oste d li m it m ay b e t h e o ffic ia l m ax im um , b u t e v ery o n e k n ow s t h at t h ese p oste d li m it s o ft e n h av e li t tle m ea n in g i n r e a li t y , a f a ct t h at t h e N M A a p pare n tly b oth r e c o gn iz e s a n d e m bra ces. Som etim es, t r a ffic m oves a lo n g a t b are ly a c ra w l. C on gestio n , p oor r o ad e n gin eerin g, a n d t h e u n pre d ic ta b le beh av io r o f d riv ers c a n li m it s p eed s. O n c lo gged r o ad s, t h e p oste d li m it c a n s e em a d is ta n t d re a m i n ste a d o f a re a li s tic li m it . O n w id e-o p en r o ad s, i n c o n tr a st, m an y d riv ers h av e d is c o vere d t h at i f t h ey d riv e a t t h e p oste d li m it , m ost o th er t r a ffic g o es f ly in g p ast t h em . 162 ©iS to ck .c o m /c h ap in 31 So w hat i s t h e r e a l s p eed li m it ? I t’s t h e s p eed a t w hic h o n e c a n s a fe ly d riv e w it h ou t b ein g p u lle d o ver b y t h e p oli c e or a s ta te t r o op er a n d i s su ed a c it a tio n . O n a n i n te rsta te h ig h w ay , t h e c o n ven tio n al w is d om i s t h at a d riv er c a n driv e a t 5 , o r p erh ap s 7 , m ile s p er h ou r o ver t h e p oste d li m it w it h li t tle f e a r o f b ein g s to p ped a n d t ic k ete d . Does t h at m ea n t h at i f t h e p oste d s p eed i s 6 5 m ph , t h e s p eed li m it i s re a lly a b ou t 7 2 m ph ? N ot q u it e . I f a d riv er 163 is c lo ck ed b y r a d ar a t g o in g 7 1 i n a 6 5-m ph z o n e, t h e f a ct t h at t h e d riv er’s s p eed i s u n der t h e c o n ven tio n al- wis d om li m it w ou ld b e n o d efe n se i n t r a ffic c o u rt. P oli c e o ffic ers c a n — an d d o— is su e c it a tio n s f o r d riv in g a t t h at sp eed . B ut i f t h e p oli c e s to p ped e v ery o n e g o in g j u st a b it o ver t h e p oste d li m it , t h ey w ou ld s p en d a ll t h eir d ay s an d n ig h ts s to p pin g j u st a b ou t e v ery o n e. A ggre ssiv e s p eed ers m ig h t t h en g et a f r e e p ass, b ec a u se t h e p oli c e w ou ld be s o b u sy s to p pin g p eo p le d riv in g j u st a f e w m ile s o ver t h e li m it t h at t h ey m ig h t n ot c a tc h t h e s u per-s p eed ers, dru n k d riv ers, a n d o th ers w ho a re r e c k le ss o n t h e r o ad . A s a r e su lt , t h e h ig h w ay d ea th t o ll m ig h t s h oot u p. I n sh ort, t h e r e a l s p eed li m it i s d ete rm in ed le ss b y w hat t h e p oste d li m it i s t h an b y h ow t h e p oli c e c h oose t o e n fo rc e it . It i s o n e t h in g f o r e le c te d o ffic ia ls t o p ass a la w , c re a te a p oli c y ( s u ch a s a s p eed li m it ) , a n d p ost i t f o r a ll t o s e e. I t is q u it e a n oth er t o t r a n sla te t h at p oli c y i n to a ctio n . W hen i t c o m es t o t h e s p eed li m it , h ow t h at p ro cess w ork s dep en ds o n t h e d is c re tio n t h at p oli c e o ffic ers a n d s ta te t r o op ers e x erc is e a s t h ey p atr o l t h e n atio n ’s h ig h w ay s. T he poli c e i n vest a g re a t d ea l o f t im e i n d ec id in g h ow b est t o e x erc is e t h at d is c re tio n : w here m ost e ffe c tiv ely t o co n cen tr a te t h eir e n erg y, a cco rd in g t o t h eir b est j u dgm en t a b ou t h ow t o s a v e t h e m ost li v es, i m pro ve t r a ffic f lo w , an d ( s o m etim es) i n cre a se t h e f lo w o f c a sh t o t h e lo ca l g o vern m en t. Govern m en ta l p oli c y o n t h e c o n tr o l o f s p eed in g d ep en ds n ot o n ly o n h ow t h e p oli c e t r a n sla te t h e o ffic ia l li m it s in to t h eir o p era tin g p la n s b u t a ls o o n h ow i n div id u al p oli c e o ffic ers, o ft e n o p era tin g a lo n e i n c a rs w it h n o su perv is io n , d ec id e t o e x erc is e t h eir o w n d is c re tio n . S h ou ld a p oli c e o ffic er t ic k et a h usb an d w ho i s d riv in g f a st t o get h is w if e t o t h e h osp it a l b ec a u se s h e i s i n la b or? S h ou ld t h e o ffic er j u st i s su e a warn in g t o s o m eo n e w ho s a y s, “G ee, o ffic er, t h is i s m y f ir st t ic k et” ? S h ou ld t h e o ffic er c o n cen tr a te o n e a sy p ic k in gs— driv ers w it h o u t- o f- s ta te li c en se s w ho w ill m ost li k ely w an t t o s e ttle q u ic k ly s o t h ey c a n g et o n t h eir w ay ? A nd s h ou ld t h e o ffic ers’ co m man ders— an d t h e e le c te d o ffic ia ls w ho s e t p oli c y — worry i f d if fe re n t o ffic ers m ak e t h ese d ec is io n s i n dif fe re n t w ay s, s o t h at t h e r e a l s p eed li m it d ep en ds u lt im ate ly o n t h e s u bje c tiv e d is c re tio n o f t h e i n div id u al o ffic er op era tin g t h e r a d ar i n t h e p oli c e c a r? The w ork o f g o vern m en t b u re a u cra ts ( fo r t h at i s w hat p oli c e o ffic ers a re ) e x te n ds f a r b ey o n d e n fo rc em en t, re a ch in g i n to p oli c y p la n nin g, d ev elo p m en t, a n d r e se a rc h . S om e o f t h e w orld ’s le a d in g e x p erts o n t r a ffic s a fe ty work f o r t h e U .S . D ep artm en t o f T ra n sp orta tio n ’s F ed era l H ig h w ay A dm in is tr a tio n ( F H W A). A f a sc in atin g stu dy c o n du cte d b y t h e F H W A i n 1 992 f o u n d t h at c h an ges i n t h e s p eed li m it — lo w erin g i t b y a s m uch a s 2 0 mph o r r a is in g i t b y a s m uch a s 1 5 m ph — had li t tle a ctu al e ffe c t o n d riv ers’ s p eed . M ore o ver, t h e F H W A f o u n d, most d riv ers r e g u la rly e x ceed t h e s p eed li m it . L ow erin g t h e s p eed li m it b elo w t h e 5 0th p erc en tile ( th at i s , t o a sp eed lo w er t h an t h at a t w hic h h alf t h e d riv ers d riv e) d id n ot r e d u ce a ccid en ts — bu t i t d id i n cre a se t h e n um ber o f vio la tio n s. Where s h ou ld s ta te a n d lo ca l g o vern m en ts s e t t h e s p eed li m it ? T he F H W A d ete rm in ed t h at i t s h ou ld b e s e t a t t h e 85th p erc en tile ( th e s p eed o n a n y g iv en r o ad a t w hic h 8 5 p erc en t o f t h e d riv ers d riv e s lo w er a n d 1 5 p erc en t d riv e fa ste r). B ec a u se m ost a ccid en ts a re c a u se d b y p eo p le w ho d riv e very f a st, s e ttin g t h e li m it a t t h e 8 5th p erc en tile wou ld a llo w m ost d riv ers t o d riv e a s f a st a s i s r e a so n ab le a n d s a fe , a n d i t w ou ld a llo w t h e p oli c e t o f o cu s t h eir atte n tio n o n t h ose d riv ers w ho a re m ost li k ely t o c a u se a ccid en ts .2 Hav in g t h at F H W A d ata i n h an d i s n ’t t h e e n d o f t h e s to ry , h ow ev er. P oli c y m ak ers o ft e n r e sis t s u ch s e em in gly so u n d a d vic e o n s e ttin g t h e s p eed li m it a s d if fe re n t c o n stit u en ts w eig h i n o n t h e r a m if ic a tio n s o f r a is in g o r lo w erin g t h e li m it . H ig h er s p eed s b u rn m ore g aso li n e, s o e n vir o n m en ta li s ts o ft e n f a v o r lo w er li m it s . I n m an y weste rn s ta te s, d riv ers c h afe a t e v en h ig h li m it s a n d p re ss f o r e v en h ig h er li m it s — as h ig h a s p ossib le — an d en fo rc em en t a s lo ose a s p ossib le . A s tr in g o f a ccid en ts o n a s tr e tc h o f r o ad c a n c re a te e n orm ou s p re ssu re o n poli c y m ak ers a n d p oli c e o ffic ers f o r a c ra ck d ow n. C it iz e n s d em an d t h at g o vern m en ts r e sp on d t o t h eir pre fe re n ces. W hen i t c o m es t o s p eed li m it s , p oli c y m ak ers n eed — an d w an t— ad m in is tr a to rs t o b e a cco u n ta b le , bec a u se i f la x e n fo rc em en t o f s p eed in g la w s c a u se s a ccid en ts , t h e p oli t ic a l c o sts f o r p oli t ic ia n s c a n b e v ery h ig h . But w hen i t c o m es t o s e ttin g a n d e n fo rc in g s p eed li m it s , t h at’s a t o u gh t r a d eo ff. I n t h e e n d, o n e t h in g i s c le a r: t h e poste d s p eed li m it i s o n e t h in g, b u t t h e g o vern m en t’s a ctu al p oli c y a g ain st s p eed in g m ay b e q u it e a n oth er. 164 Q uestio n s t o C on sid er 1 . The a n nou n ced p oli c y o n s p eed in g u su ally d oes n ot m atc h t h e p oli c y a s t h e p oli c e a ctu ally e n fo rc e i t . Why? W hat f o rc es a re a t w ork ? 2 . Sh ou ld c it iz e n s w orry t h at t h ere s e em s t o b e s u ch a g ap b etw een p oli c y a n d a d m in is tr a tio n ? 3 . Where t h e s p eed li m it p oli c y p oste d o n t r a ffic s ig n s a n d t h e a ctu al e n fo rc em en t b eh av io r o f t h e p oli c e dif fe r, w hat i s su es a re p ote n tia lly t h e m ost d if fic u lt t o r e so lv e? 4 . Poli c e a re b u re a u cra ts — bu t s o a re t h e t e c h n ic a l e x p erts w ho h av e c o n du cte d p u bli s h ed s tu die s o n t h e sp eed li m it s . W hat i m pact c a n — an d s h ou ld — go vern m en t’s b u re a u cra tic e x p erts h av e o n i t s p oli c y ? 5 . Who i s r e sp on sib le f o r w hat i n t h is s u rp ris in gly c o m ple x s y ste m : f r a m in g p oli c y o p tio n s, s e ttin g o vera ll poli c y , s e ttin g p atr o l s tr a te g ie s, a n d e n fo rc in g t h e p oli c y o n t h e r o ad s? W hat d oes t h is t e ll u s a b ou t t h e poli t ic s o f t h e a d m in is tr a tiv e p ro cess? 165 N ote s 1. S ee N atio n al S p eed T ra p E xch an ge, http :/ /w ww.s p eed tr a p .o rg /c it y /1 0210/Y ork . 2. F ed era l H ig h w ay A dm in is tr a tio n , U .S . D ep artm en t o f T ra n sp orta tio n , Effe cts o f R aisi n g a n d L ow erin g S peed Lim it s , R ep ort F H W A-R D -9 2-0 84 ( O cto b er 1 992). S ee a ls o E li z a b eth A li c a n dri a n d D av ey L . W arre n , “M an ag in g S p eed ,” Publi c R oa d s ( J a n uary – F eb ru ary 2 003), http s:/ /w ww.f h w a.d ot.g o v/p u bli c a tio n s/ p u bli c ro ad s/ 0 3ja n /1 0.c fm . 166 C ase 3 .2 : S h ou ld P riv ate C on tr a cto rs B e G uard in g G overn m en t B uild in gs? Vern on H un te r a n d h is w if e , V ale rie , b oth w ork ed f o r t h e I n te rn al R ev en ue S erv ic e ( I R S) i n A ustin , T ex as. T hey both lo ved t h eir j o b s, b u t V ern on , a g e 6 7, w as t h in kin g a b ou t le a v in g t h e g o vern m en t a n d s p en din g s o m e q u ie t yea rs i n r e tir e m en t. F or V ern on , a V ie tn am W ar v et, t h ose t h ou gh ts e n ded a b ru ptly i n F eb ru ary 2 010. J o se p h Sta ck , a m an w it h a lo n g g ru dge a g ain st t h e I R S, p oste d a h ate -fille d d ia tr ib e o n t h e w eb , s e t f ir e t o h is o w n hom e, d ro ve t o a n a ir p ort, a n d t o ok o ff i n h is p la n e. H e s e em ed t o h av e a im ed i t d ir e c tly a t t h e p ortio n o f t h e bu ild in g o ccu pie d b y t h e I R S. V ale rie h ea rd t h e e x p lo sio n , a n d w hen s h e c o u ld n ’t f in d V ern on r ig h t a w ay , s h e assu m ed h e w as h elp in g o th ers o u t o f t h e f ir e . O nly la te r d id s h e d is c o ver t h at V ern on d ie d i n t h e e x p lo sio n ca u se d b y t h e p la n e’s f u el t a n k. Atta ck s o n g o vern m en t b u ild in gs h av e w orrie d s e c u rit y o ffic ia ls e v en m ore s in ce t h e S ep te m ber 1 1, 2 001, te rro ris t a tta ck s. T im oth y M cV eig h ’s 1 995 a ssa u lt o n t h e A lf r e d P . M urra h F ed era l B uild in g, a n O kla h om a C it y fe d era l g o vern m en t b u ild in g, w it h a t r u ck b om b t h at k ille d 1 68 p eo p le s h ow ed h ow v u ln era b le g o vern m en t fa cili t ie s c o u ld b e. O th er a tta ck s, i n clu din g R usse ll E ugen e W esto n J r.’s 1 998 a tte m pt t o s h oot h is w ay i n to t h e U.S . C ap it o l a n d J a m es W . v o n B ru n n’s 2 009 a tta ck o n W ash in gto n , D .C .’s H olo ca u st M use u m , s h ow ed t h e ris k . B ut j u st h ow v u ln era b le a re g o vern m en t b u ild in gs t o s u ch a tta ck s? Govern m en t i n vestig ato rs d ec id ed t o f in d o u t. T he G overn m en t A cco u n ta b ili t y O ffic e, C on gre ss’s i n vestig ato ry ag en cy , s e n t u n derc o ver o p era tiv es i n to f e d era l b u ild in gs w it h g u n s, k n iv es, a n d f a k e b om bs. I n e ig h te en t e sts , t h e gu ard s d ete c te d t h e w ea p on s— bu t t h ey m is se d t h em t h ir ty -fiv e t im es, f o r a t w o-th ir d s f a ilu re r a te . A t o n e f a cili t y , an i n vestig ato r p u t a b ag c o n ta in in g a f a k e b om b o n to a b elt f o r a n X -r a y c h ec k . T he g u ard m is se d i t a n d t h e in vestig ato r w as a b le t o p ic k u p t h e b ag a n d c a rry i t i n to t h e b u ild in g. I n a n oth er t e st, a n i n sp ec to r p u t a b ag hold in g a f a k e g u n o n t h e b elt . T he g u ard c a u gh t t h is o n e a n d h eld t h e i n sp ec to r o ff i n a c o rn er— bu t w it h ou t a fu rth er s e a rc h o r h an dcu ffs , a s t h e r u le s r e q u ir e d . A s t h e g u ard s c o n cen tr a te d o n t h e f ir st d ec o y, a s e c o n d in sp ec to r w alk ed r ig h t t h ro u gh t h e c h ec k p oin t w it h t w o k n iv es— an d w it h ou t b ein g s to p ped . I n a b ro ad er c h ec k , in vestig ato rs w ere a b le t o g et i n to t e n d if fe re n t f a cili t ie s w it h t h e m ate ria ls t h ey n eed ed t o b u ild a b om b.1 Is t h is a f a ilu re o f g o vern m en t s e c u rit y ? T he a n sw er t o t h at i s c le a r. B ut i s i t a f a ilu re o f g o vern m en t s e c u rit y gu ard s? T hat, a s i t t u rn s o u t, i s a f a r t o u gh er q u estio n . T he a g en cy r e sp on sib le f o r s e c u rit y i n f e d era l b u ild in gs, th e F ed era l P ro te c tiv e S erv ic e ( F P S), e m plo ys 1 ,2 25 p erso n s— bu t i s r e sp on sib le f o r 2 ,3 60 f e d era l f a cili t ie s. H ow does i t p lu g t h is g ap ? W it h 1 5,0 00 p riv ate s e c u rit y g u ard s, w ork in g u n der c o n tr a ct t o F P S. I n f a ct, t h ou gh m ost vis it o rs n ev er n otic e i t , t h e s h ou ld er p atc h es o n t h e a rm s o f m ost g u ard s p ro te c tin g t h e m ajo rit y o f m ost f e d era l bu ild in gs s h ow t h ey w ork f o r p riv ate c o m pan ie s. T he S ec re t S erv ic e g u ard s t h e W hit e H ou se . B ut f o r m an y y ea rs, th e g u ard s c h arg ed w it h p re v en tin g t e rro ris ts f r o m s to rm in g t h e f a cili t ie s m an ufa ctu rin g p arts f o r n ucle a r wea p on s— in clu din g s it e s s to ck ed w it h p lu to n iu m , p erh ap s t h e m ost d an gero u s s u bsta n ce o n t h e p la n et— were fr o m p riv ate c o m pan ie s. O n a v is it t o o n e s u ch p la n t, I t a lk ed w it h a g u ard w ho p ro u dly t o ld m e h e w as t r a in ed on t w en ty -o n e d if fe re n t w ea p on s. H e w ork ed f o r W ack en hut, o n e o f t h e w orld ’s la rg est p riv ate s e c u rit y co m pan ie s. But t h e c o m bin atio n o f r is in g t h re a ts a n d t h e g o vern m en t’s h ig h r e li a n ce o n p riv ate g u ard s h as m ad e m an y mem bers o f C on gre ss u n ea sy . R ep . S h eila J a ck so n L ee ( D -T ex .) h as a rg u ed t h at F P S o u gh t t o b e r e q u ir e d t o s h if t more o f i t s g u ard s f r o m p riv ate c o n tr a cto rs t o f e d era l e m plo yees. S h e p oin te d t o t h e d ec is io n t o f e d era li z e a ir p ort in sp ec to rs a ft e r t h e S ep te m ber 1 1, 2 001, t e rro ris t a tta ck s. “ M an y o f u s b eli e v e t h at i t m ay b e t im e t o u n -p riv atiz e th e c o n tr a cto rs o f t h e F ed era l P ro te c tiv e S erv ic e o r a t le a st p u t i n h ig h er r e q u ir e m en ts ,” s h e s a id .2 167 Q uestio n s t o C on sid er 1 . Do y o u t h in k t h at i t m atte rs who p ro vid es s e c u rit y a t g o vern m en t f a cili t ie s? W hy? F an s o f c o n tr a ctin g s a y th at w hoev er c a n d o t h e j o b f o r t h e lo w est c o st o u gh t t o g et t h e w ork . O ppon en ts c o u n te r t h at p ro te c tio n is a n i n here n tly g o vern m en ta l a ctiv it y t h at o u gh t t o b e p erfo rm ed b y g o vern m en t e m plo yees. 2 . Do y o u li k e t h e i d ea o f a rm in g p riv ate e m plo yees a n d a llo w in g t h em t o s h oot t o k ill, i n t h e i n te re st o f pro te c tin g g o vern m en t b u ild in gs a n d t h eir e m plo yees? O r s h ou ld le th al f o rc e b e a p ow er g iv en o n ly t o go vern m en t g u ard s d oin g t h e g o vern m en t’s w ork ? 3 . More g en era lly , h ow w ou ld y o u s o rt o u t t h e w ork t h at y o u t h in k g o vern m en t o u gh t t o p erfo rm ? A nd who o u gh t t o p erfo rm t h at w ork o n b eh alf o f g o vern m en t? 168 N ote s 1. U .S . G overn m en t A cco u n ta b ili t y O ffic e, Hom ela n d S ecu rit y : F ed era l P ro te ctiv e S erv ic e ’s C on tr a ct G uard Pro gra m R eq u ir e s M ore O versi g h t a n d R ea sse ssm en t o f U se o f C on tr a ct G uard s , G AO -1 0-3 41 ( A pril 2 010), http :/ /w ww.g ao .g o v/n ew .i t e m s/ d 10341.p d f . 2. E d O ’K eefe , “ L eg is la tio n W ou ld F ed era li z e P riv ate G uard s W ho P ro te c t U .S . G overn m en t B uild in gs,” Wash in gto n P ost ( S ep te m ber 1 4, 2 010), http :/ /w ww.w ash in gto n post.c o m /w p- dyn /c o n te n t/ a rtic le /2 010/0 9/1 3/A R 2010091306355.h tm l . 169 C ase 3 .3 : C ris is o f W ate r i n M ary la n d What c o u ld b e w orse t h an d ay s o f t e m pera tu re s i n t h e m id -9 0s w it h s te a m y h um id it y , t h ou gh t r e sid en ts o f Prin ce G eo rg e’s C ou n ty , M ary la n d, t h an t h e a n nou n cem en t b y t h eir lo ca l w ate r d is tr ic t t h at a ll w ate r w ou ld b e tu rn ed o ff f o r d ay s? R esid en ts s c ra m ble d t o b u y c a se s o f b ottle d w ate r i n n eig h borh ood s to re s. M an y f ille d t h eir bath tu bs t o t h e b rim . O th ers s c ra m ble d f o r a n yth in g t h ey c o u ld f in d t h at c o u ld h old w ate r, f r o m r e c y cli n g b in s to t r a sh c a n s. W it h o p pre ssiv e t e m pera tu re s i n t h e f o re c a st f o r d ay s, r e sid en ts f e a re d t h ey w ere i n f o r a v ery t o u gh tim e. The s o u rc e o f t h e p ro b le m w as a 4 8-y ea r-o ld v alv e, 4 .5 f e et i n d ia m ete r, t h at t h re a te n ed t o b u rst n ot f a r f r o m t h e Wash in gto n B elt w ay . J u st a f e w w eek s b efo re , t h e W ash in gto n S u bu rb an S an it a ry C om mis sio n ( W SSC ), a sp ec ia l- d is tr ic t g o vern m en t t h at s u ppli e s w ate r a n d w aste t r e a tm en t t o t h e r e g io n , h ad i n sta lle d a n ew a co u stic ca b le t h ro u gh t h e w ate r p ip e t o d ete c t p ro b le m s b efo re t h ey e x p lo d ed s u dden ly i n a m assiv e w ate r-li n e b re a k . J u st a f e w m on th s b efo re , a w ate r m ain b u rst o n t h e o th er s id e o f t h e c it y , c re a tin g a 2 0-fo ot d eep c ra te r a n d s e n din g a gey se r 4 0 f e et i n to t h e a ir . P ro b le m s w it h a m ain w ate r-s u pply li n e a re n ev er g o od , b u t t h ey ’r e w orst w hen t h ey hap pen b y s u rp ris e a n d c a u se b la st- li k e d am ag e i n t h e p ro cess. Offic ia ls f r o m W SSC w ere p ro u d t h at t h eir n ew e q u ip m en t h ad c a u gh t t h e p ro b le m b efo re i t r u ptu re d . T heir pla n w as t o s h ut o ff t h e w ate r, r e p air t h e v alv e b efo re i t b le w , a n d t h en g et t h e s y ste m b ack o n li n e a s s o on a s t h ey co u ld . T he v alv e w as a t a n e sp ec ia lly h ard -to -r e a ch s p ot, a n d t h ey h ad t o b eg in b y b u ild in g a r o ad t o t h e s it e t o brin g i n e q u ip m en t b efo re t h ey c o u ld s ta rt r e p air s, a ll t h e w hile h op in g t h at t h e p ip e w ou ld n ’t b u rst b efo re t h ey co u ld f ix i t . WSSC r e c o m men ded t h at r e sid en ts s to ck p ile a t le a st 2 g allo n s o f w ate r p er p erso n p er d ay , a n d t h at s e t o ff t h e sc ra m ble . S u perm ark ets c a lle d t h eir s u ppli e rs f o r e x tr a t r u ck lo ad s o f b ottle d w ate r. R esta u ra n ts i n sid e t h e a ffe c te d are a s h ut d ow n, s in ce t h ere w ou ld b e n o w ate r f o r c o okin g o r d is h w ash in g. A m ajo r r e so rt h ote l s e n t a ll o f i t s gu ests h om e, s in ce t h ere w ou ld b e n o w ate r f o r la u n drie s, r e sta u ra n ts , s in ks, o r t o ile ts . F ir e fig h te rs m ad e p la n s t o re sp on d t o a la rm s w it h b ig t a n ker t r u ck s, s in ce f ir e h yd ra n ts w ou ld n ’t w ork . S co tt P ete rso n , t h e c o u n ty ex ec u tiv e’s s p okesm an , t o ld r e p orte rs t h at t h e “ ec o n om ic i m pact o f t h is e v en t w ill b e t h e e q u iv ale n t o f a n atu ra l dis a ste r h it tin g t h e c o u n ty .” 1 T he s h utd ow n s to ry m ad e n ew s a ro u n d t h e c o u n tr y a n d w orrie d r e sid en ts p re p are d fo r a lo n g s ie g e. But h ou rs i n to t h e r e p air s, w ork ers m an ag ed a m in or m ir a cle . T wo w ork ers, e x p ose d t o m is e ra b le h ea t a n d work in g 4 f e et b elo w g ro u n d le v el, f o u n d a w ay t o r e p air t h e v alv e w it h ou t h av in g t o s h ut d ow n t h e p ip e, a n d t h e wate r n ev er s to p ped f lo w in g. T hey m an ag ed t o g et t h e v alv e u n stu ck a n d t o m ak e t h e 4 00 t u rn s r e q u ir e d t o p u t it b ack i n o p era tio n . “ N o o n e t h ou gh t t h ese g u ys w ere g o in g t o p u ll t h is o ff,” t h e W SSC s p okesp erso n h ap pily ex p la in ed . Cou n ty E xec u tiv e R ush ern B ak er I II, h ow ev er, w as i n n o m ood t o c ele b ra te . H e w as s tu n ned t o d is c o ver t h at h is co u n ty h ad g o n e t h ro u gh s u ch w re n ch in g p re p ara tio n s, o n ly t o h av e n o i n te rru ptio n i n s e rv ic e. “ W hen d id t h ey fir st k n ow a b ou t t h is o th er o p tio n , a n d h ow s o on w ere t h ey a b le t o t e ll u s o th er t h an t h is m orn in g?” B ak er won dere d . “ W e a re g o in g t o a sk s o m e v ery t o u gh q u estio n s. W e a re g o in g t o h av e a v ery lo n g a n d le n gth y dis c u ssio n a b ou t h ow w e c a n m ak e s u re t h is d oesn ’t h ap pen a g ain .” J im N eu sta d t, s p ea k in g o n b eh alf o f W SSC , ex p la in ed , “ T he b otto m li n e i s o u r e x p erts m ak e t h e b est d ec is io n s t h ey c a n w it h a ll t h e i n fo rm atio n w e h av e av aila b le . W e h av e t o p ro te c t t h e p u bli c , a n d t h at’s w hat w e f e lt w e w ere d oin g.” 2 There w asn ’t a s o u l i n t h e c o u n ty w ho w asn ’t i m men se ly r e li e v ed t h at t h eir w ate r c o n tin ued t o f lo w . B ut a ft e r t h e ca ta str o p h ic e x p lo sio n s e v era l m on th s b efo re , f o llo w ed b y w hat lo ca l o ffic ia ls v ie w ed a s w arn in gs o f r is k w it h ou t tr a n sp are n cy , t o u gh q u estio n s la y a h ea d f o r W SSC ’s le a d ers. 170 Q uestio n s t o C on sid er 1 . Su ppose y o u w ere a n a d m in is tr a to r c h arg ed w it h t h e p u bli c h ea lt h a n d s a fe ty o f y o u r c o m mun it y , a n d yo u le a rn ed t h at y o u r w ate r, w it h in h ou rs, w ou ld b e s h ut o ff f o r d ay s. W hat w ou ld y o u d o? H ow w ou ld yo u c o m mun ic a te w it h c it iz e n s? H ow w ou ld y o u p ro te c t e sse n tia l s e rv ic es? 2 . Con sid er t h e s it u atio n t h at W SSC f a ced . I ts t o p o ffic ia ls d id n ot b eli e v e t h at i t s t e a m w as li k ely t o b e a b le to r e p air t h e w ate r li n e w it h ou t s h uttin g i t o ff— an d i f i t h ad t o s h ut i t o ff, s e rv ic e w ou ld b e o u t f o r d ay s. Offic ia ls d id n ot t e ll t h e p u bli c o r P rin ce G eo rg e’s C ou n ty g o vern m en t o ffic ia ls t h at t h ere w as a c h an ce th at i t s w ork ers c o u ld m ak e t h e r e p air s w it h ou t s h uttin g o ff t h e w ate r. D o y o u b eli e v e t h at W SSC han dle d t h e s it u atio n p ro p erly ? I f t h ey t o ld e v ery o n e t h at t h ere w as a c h an ce t h at a s h uto ff m ig h t n ot b e nec essa ry , t h ey r is k ed h av in g t h ou sa n ds o f c it iz e n s w ho f a ile d t o m ak e p re p ara tio n s i f t h e s h uto ff hap pen ed , a t a t im e o f e x tr e m e h ea t. T hey d id n ot s h are t h e w ord , b u t t h en r e c eiv ed h arsh c rit ic is m f r o m th e c o u n ty e x ec u tiv e. 3 . Cou n ty E xec u tiv e B ak er w as i n a d if fic u lt s it u atio n . W SSC i s a s p ec ia l- d is tr ic t g o vern m en t, p ro vid in g wate r a n d s e w ag e s e rv ic e t o h is c o u n ty a n d t o a n eig h borin g c o u n ty . I t w as n ot u n der t h e p oli t ic a l o r op era tio n al c o n tr o l o f e it h er. W SSC w as m ak in g d ec is io n s t h at a ffe c te d h is c o n stit u en ts , b u t h e h ad n o co n tr o l o ver W SSC ’s a ctio n s. W hat s tr a te g ie s c o u ld — an d s h ou ld — Bak er u se i n t h is c a se ? 171 N ote s 1. K ath erin e S h av er a n d A sh le y H als e y I II, “ P rin ce G eo rg e’s R esid en ts B ra ce f o r W ate r S h ut- o ff,” Wash in gto n Post ( J u ly 1 6, 2 013), http :/ /w ww.w ash in gto n post.c o m /lo ca l/ p rin ce-g eo rg es-r e sid en ts -b ra ce-fo r-w ate r-s h ut- off/ 2 013/0 7/1 6/a b d aa7 2c-e e0 5-1 1e2 -9 008-6 1e9 4a7 ea 2 0d _sto ry .h tm l . 2. A sh le y H als e y I II a n d K ath erin e S h av er, “ P rin ce G eo rg e’s W ate r S h ut- o ff A verte d ,” Wash in gto n P ost ( J u ly 1 7, 2013), http s:/ /w ww.w ash in gto n post.c o m /lo ca l/ p rin ce-g eo rg es-c o p es-w it h -w ate r- re str ic tio n s/ 2 013/0 7/1 7/1 2c4 4bcc-e ed 4-1 1e2 -9 008-6 1e9 4a7 ea 2 0d _sto ry .h tm l . 172 C ase 3 .4 : H um vees i n F erg u so n In t h e d ay s a ft e r t h e t r a g ic s h ootin g o f M ic h ael B ro w n i n F erg u so n , M is so u ri, i n A ugu st 2 014, n ew s p ro gra m s ra n v id eo a ft e r v id eo s h ow in g lo ca l p oli c e a ro u n d t h e c o u n tr y a rm ed w it h m ach in e g u n s a n d d riv in g h ea v ily arm ore d v eh ic le s. T he New Y ork T im es d esc rib ed a d ese rt- k h ak i- p ain te d M RAP— fo r m in e-r e sis ta n t a m bu sh pro te c te d v eh ic le — sit tin g n ex t t o a s n ow plo w i n t h e m un ic ip al g ara g e o f N een ah , W is c o n sin . A nd a r e p ort f r o m The C hro n ic le o f H ig h er E du ca tio n r e v ea le d t h at t h e U niv ersit y o f C en tr a l F lo rid a i n O rla n do o w ns a g re n ad e la u n ch er, r e to ole d t o f ir e t e a r-g as c a n is te rs. Hun dre d s o f c o m mun it ie s a n d c a m pu se s a cro ss t h e c o u n tr y h av e b een t h e r e c ip ie n t o f h an d-m e-d ow n m ili t a ry eq u ip m en t, f r o m m ach in e g u n s a n d a rm ore d v eh ic le s t o h eli c o p te rs a n d n ig h t- v is io n g o ggle s. A ll t h e e q u ip m en t co m es f r o m t h e D ep artm en t o f D efe n se ’s 1 033 p ro gra m , w hic h g iv es p oli c e d ep artm en ts w artim e g ea r t h at t h e mili t a ry n o lo n ger n eed s. Bette r t h at i t ’s s h ip ped t o lo ca l c o p s, t h e r e a so n in g g o es, t h an g et t o sse d a w ay . A ft e r a ll, lo ca l p oli c e s u re ly c a n nev er b e t o o p re p are d f o r t h e v ast a rra y o f t h re a ts t h ey f a ce. But t h e i d ea o f a n M RAP t o oli n g a ro u n d W is c o n sin o r a H um vee m ak in g t h e r o u n ds o n a c o lle g e c a m pu s r a is e s co n cern s a m on g c rit ic s w ho q u estio n w heth er t h e f e d s a re k in dli n g r a cia l t e n sio n s t h ro u gh a p oli c y o f s u per- arm in g c o p s. A s E aste rn K en tu ck y U niv ersit y c rim in al j u stic e p ro fe sso r P ete r K ra sk a t o ld a r e p orte r, a “ sm all ag en cy c a n g o r a p id ly f r o m o n e o f p ro te c tin g a n d s e rv in g t o o n e o f v ie w in g t h e c o m mun it y a s t h e e n em y a n d a pote n tia l t h re a t.” That w orry , i n f a ct, le d P re sid en t O bam a t o c a ll f o r a f u ll r e v ie w o f t h e p ro gra m . W it h F erg u so n ’s h ea v ily a rm ed co p s t o ssin g t e a r g as f r o m b eh in d a rm ore d v eh ic le s, p u n dit s s u ggeste d t h at t h e f e d s a n d t h eir 1 033 p ro gra m h ad fu ele d t h e t e n sio n s o n t h e c it y ’s s tr e ets . They w ere w ro n g. A lm ost n on e o f F erg u so n ’s w ea p on ry , a s i t t u rn s o u t, c a m e f r o m t h e 1 033 p ro gra m . T he to w n’s p oli c e d ep artm en t d id p ic k u p a c o u ple o f H um vees, a c a rg o t r a ile r, a n d a g en era to r t h ro u gh t h e p ro gra m , bu t n oth in g i n t h e c en te r o f t h e c o n tr o versy c a m e f r o m t h e P en ta g o n . Ferg u so n a n d S t. L ou is p oli c e d ep artm en ts b ou gh t a lm ost e v ery th in g s e en o n t e le v is io n w it h t h eir o w n m on ey . Most o f t h e e q u ip m en t i n t h e p ro gra m i s n ’t e v en w ea p on ry — Yale U niv ersit y r e c eiv ed m en ’s t r o u se rs a n d Nash ville ’s p oli c e d ep artm en t g o t Z od ia c b oats , w hic h i t s o ffic ers u se d i n t h e 2 010 f lo od s t o r e sc u e s tr a n ded re sid en ts . W it h c o p s s o m etim es f in din g t h em se lv es n ot o n ly i n d if fic u lt t a ctic a l s it u atio n s b u t a ls o u n der a ssa u lt , giv in g t h em t h e b est p ro te c tio n m ak es s e n se . T he r e a l i s su e i s n ’t s o m uch t h e f e d s f u eli n g r a cia l t e n sio n w it h t h e eq u ip m en t, a s i t i s t h at t h e e q u ip m en t h as c o m e t o s y m boli z e o n go in g f r ic tio n s i n m an y c o m mun it ie s b etw een lo ca l p oli c e a n d t h eir c it iz e n s. Man y p oli c e d ep artm en ts h av e lo n g-s ta n din g r a cia l t e n sio n s w it h c it iz e n s, e sp ec ia lly i n t h ose p la ces w here t h e co m posit io n o f t h e p oli c e f o rc e d oesn ’t m atc h t h at o f t h e lo ca li t y . I n F erg u so n , w here t w o-th ir d s o f t h e pop u la tio n i s b la ck , f if t y o f t h e f if t y -th re e p oli c e o ffic ers a re w hit e . F erg u so n i s n ’t a lo n e. I n n ea rb y G ra n dvie w , th e p oli c e f o rc e i s 9 2 p erc en t w hit e w hile t h e p op u la tio n i s 5 5 p erc en t n on w hit e . K an sa s C it y , K an sa s, i s d oin g a bit b ette r. I ts p oli c e d ep artm en t i s 7 2 p erc en t w hit e w hile i t s p op u la tio n i s 6 0 p erc en t n on w hit e . Vir tu ally a ll o f t h ese o ffic ers, i t s h ou ld b e s a id , a re i n cre d ib ly d ed ic a te d a n d g o t o w ork e v ery d ay f a cin g a v ery to u gh m is sio n . D iv ersit y i s m uch m ore c o m ple x t h an a n um bers g am e, a n d s o m e d iv erse d ep artm en ts h av e t h eir ow n s tr u ggle s w it h c o m mun it y r e la tio n s. B ut w it h s o m an y c it ie s dem on str a tin g t h e e ffe c tiv en ess o f c o m mun it y poli c in g, a r a cia l g ap b etw een o ffic ers o n t h e f o rc e a n d c it iz e n s o n t h e s tr e ets c a n v astly c o m pli c a te t h e 173 co m mun it y c o n nec tio n . A s o n e b la ck O hio r e sid en t t o ld a r e p orte r a b ou t t h e n on bla ck c o p s h e e n co u n te re d , “T he p oli c e c o m e h ere , t h ey d o t h eir j o b s, t h ey d on ’t t r y t o g et t o k n ow a n yb od y.” A nd, h e c o n tin ued , “ T he poli c e d on ’t w av e.” Cop s w ho c o n nec t w it h t h e c o m mun it ie s t h ey s e rv e, c rim in al j u stic e e x p erts b eli e v e, p ro ve m ore e ffe c tiv e i n bu ild in g r e la tio n sh ip s, g en era tin g t r u st, a n d d e-e sc a la tin g c o n fli c ts . There i s n ’t g o od e v id en ce o n w heth er r a cia l d iv ersit y m ak es p oli c e f o rc es m ore e ffe c tiv e, o r w heth er p oli c e offic ers o f d if fe re n t r a ces t r e a t t h e p eo p le t h ey e n co u n te r a n y d if fe re n tly . M ore o ver, h ir in g m ore b la ck o ffic ers doesn ’t w ip e a w ay p oli c e-c o m mun it y t e n sio n s, a n d i n cre a sin g d iv ersit y i s a h ard r o ad , e x p erts s a y . I t s e em s t o matte r m uch m ore w heth er t o p o ffic ia ls s u pport e ffo rts b y t h eir o ffic ers t o b u ild n eig h borh ood t ie s. It’s e a sy t o p oin t t o v id eo o f h ea v ily a rm ed c o p s a s t h e c a u se o f t h e r a cia l p ro b le m , w it h t h e P en ta g o n d riv in g a to p -d ow n r a cia l w ed ge i n to lo ca l c o m mun it ie s. T hat’s w ro n g. Far m ore i m porta n t i s t h e b otto m -u p e ffo rt t o s tr e n gth en t h e r e la tio n sh ip b etw een p oli c e o ffic ers a n d t h e c it iz e n s th ey s e rv e. T he w ay i n w hic h c o p s a n d c o m mun it ie s c o n nec t h as b ec o m e o n e o f t h e m ost i m porta n t f r o n t li n es i n th e c o n tin uin g s tr u ggle o ver c iv il r ig h ts . F ed era lly d eli v ere d M RAPs a re n ’t s o m uch t h e c a u se o f t h e p ro b le m a s th ey a re a p ow erfu l s y m bol t h at a g re a t d ea l o f w ork s till n eed s t o b e d on e t o m ak e t h at c o n nec tio n . 174 Q uestio n s t o C on sid er 1 . What d o y o u t h in k o f t h e f e d era l g o vern m en t’s p ro gra m t o s u pply s ta te a n d lo ca l g o vern m en ts t o pu rc h ase m ili t a ry e q u ip m en t f o r t h eir p oli c e f o rc es? I s i t a g o od w ay o f p ro vid in g t h em w it h a d dit io n al re so u rc es— or d oes i t r is k w orse n in g c it iz e n s’ r e la tio n sh ip s w it h t h e p oli c e? 2 . Con sid er t h e r a cia l m ak eu p o f t h e F erg u so n p oli c e d ep artm en t, a t t h e t im e o f M ic h ael B ro w n’s s h ootin g. Does t h e m is m atc h b etw een t h e r a cia l c o m posit io n o f t h e p oli c e d ep artm en t a n d o f t h e c o m mun it y c a u se yo u c o n cern ? 3 . What s tr a te g ie s d o y o u t h in k w ou ld b e m ost e ffe c tiv e i n i m pro vin g r e la tio n sh ip s b etw een t h e c o m mun it y an d lo ca l p oli c e? Note : T his c a se c o m es f r o m m y c o lu m n i n Gov ern in g ( D ec em ber 2 014), http :/ /w ww.g o vern in g.c o m /c o lu m ns/ p oto m ac-c h ro n ic le /g o v-p oli c e-fe rg u so n -m ili t a riz a tio n .h tm l . 175 K ey C on cep ts Antid efic ie n cy A ct   65 neu tr a li t y d octr in e   72 non pro fit   65 org an iz a tio n al t h eo ry   61 oversig h t   65 perfo rm an ce m ea su re s   64 poli c y m ak in g   61 pu bli c a d m in is tr a tio n   60 For F urth er R ea d in g Fry , B ria n R . Mast e rin g P ubli c A dm in ist r a tio n : F ro m M ax W eb er t o D wig h t W ald o . 3 rd e d . W ash in gto n , D.C .: C Q P re ss, 2 013. Good se ll, C harle s T . The C ase f o r B ure a u cr a cy : A P ubli c A dm in ist r a tio n P ole m ic . 4 th e d . W ash in gto n , D .C .: CQ P re ss, 2 004. Oku n , A rth ur. Equ ali t y a n d E ffi c ie n cy : T he B ig T ra d eo ff. W ash in gto n , D .C .: B ro okin gs I n stit u tio n , 1 975. Polli t t, C hris to p h er. Tim e, P oli c y , M an agem en t: G ov ern in g w it h t h e P ast . O xfo rd : O xfo rd U niv ersit y P re ss, 2008. Wald o, D wig h t. The A dm in ist r a tiv e S ta te : A S tu dy o f t h e P oli t ic a l T heo ry o f A m eric a n P ubli c A dm in ist r a tio n . New Y ork : R on ald P re ss, 1 948. Wils o n , W ood ro w . “ T he S tu dy o f A dm in is tr a tio n .” Poli t ic a l S cie n ce Q uarte rly 2 ( J u n e 1 887). R ep rin te d i n Poli t ic a l S cie n ce Q uarte rly 5 6 ( D ec em ber 1 941): 4 81–506. Su ggeste d W eb sit e s The I n te rn et c o n ta in s a v ast r e se rv o ir o f i n fo rm atio n a b ou t p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n a n d p u bli c o rg an iz a tio n s. A g o od p la ce t o e x p lo re t h e s u bje c t i s w it h t h e a sso cia tio n s t h at f o cu s m ost o n t h e f ie ld : t h e A m eric a n Socie ty f o r P ubli c A dm in is tr a tio n , www.a sp an et.o rg , a n d t h e N atio n al A ca d em y o f P ubli c A dm in is tr a tio n , www.n ap aw ash .o rg . More o ver, t h e f e d era l g o vern m en t h as a n e x celle n t s e a rc h e n gin e t h at p ro vid es e a sy a ccess t o t h e h uge am ou n t o f d ata , r e p orts , a n d p ro gra m s p ro d u ced b y t h e g o vern m en t: www.u sa .g o v . M ost s ta te a n d lo ca l go vern m en ts h av e t h eir o w n w eb sit e s a s w ell, a n d www.s ta te lo ca lg o v.n et p ro vid es a n e a sy i n dex o f t h em . Wan t a B ette r G ra d e? Get t h e t o ols y o u n eed t o s h arp en y o u r s tu dy s k ills . A ccess p ra ctic e q u iz ze s, e F la sh ca rd s, v id eo , a n d mult im ed ia a t ed ge.s a g ep u b.c o m /k ettl7 e . 176